Method of making an electrochemical reactor via sintering inorganic dry particles

ABSTRACT

Herein disclosed is a method of making an electrochemical reactor comprising a) depositing a composition on a substrate to form a slice; b) drying the slice using a non-contact dryer; c) sintering the slice using electromagnetic radiation (EMR), wherein the electrochemical reactor comprises an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte between the anode and the cathode. In an embodiment, the electrochemical reactor comprises at least one unit, wherein the unit comprises the anode, the cathode, the electrolyte and an interconnect and wherein the unit has a thickness of no greater than 1 mm. In an embodiment, the anode is no greater than 50 microns in thickness, the cathode is no greater than 50 microns in thickness, and the electrolyte is no greater than 10 microns in thickness.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 16/680,770 filed Nov. 12, 2019, which is acontinuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. Nos.16/674,580, 16/674,629, 16/674,657, 16/674,695 all filed Nov. 5, 2019,each of which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) of U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/756,257 filed Nov. 6, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/756,264 filed Nov. 6, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/757,751 filed Nov. 8, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/758,778 filed Nov. 12, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/767,413 filed Nov. 14, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/768,864 filed Nov. 17, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/771,045 filed Nov. 24, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/773,071 filed Nov. 29, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/773,912 filed Nov. 30, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/777,273 filed Dec. 10, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/777,338 filed Dec. 10, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/779,005 filed Dec. 13, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/780,211 filed Dec. 15, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/783,192 filed Dec. 20, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/784,472 filed Dec. 23, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/786,341 filed Dec. 29, 2018, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/791,629 filed Jan. 11, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/797,572 filed Jan. 28, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/798,344 filed Jan. 29, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/804,115 filed Feb. 11, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/805,250 filed Feb. 13, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/808,644 filed Feb. 21, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/809,602 filed Feb. 23, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/814,695 filed Mar. 6, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/819,374 filed Mar. 15, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/819,289 filed Mar. 15, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/824,229 filed Mar. 26, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/825,576 filed Mar. 28, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/827,800 filed Apr. 1, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/834,531 filed Apr. 16, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/837,089 filed Apr. 22, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/840,381 filed Apr. 29, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/844,125 filed May 7, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/844,127 filed May 7, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/847,472 filed May 14, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/849,269 filed May 17, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/852,045 filed May 23, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/856,736 filed Jun. 3, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/863,390 filed Jun. 19, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/864,492 filed Jun. 20, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/866,758 filed Jun. 26, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/869,322 filed Jul. 1, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/875,437 filed Jul. 17, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/877,699 filed Jul. 23, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/888,319 filed Aug. 16, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/895,416 filed Sep. 3, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/896,466 filed Sep. 5, 2019, U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/899,087 filed on Sep. 11, 2019,U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/904,683 filed on Sep. 24,2019, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/912,626 filed on Oct.8, 2019, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/925,210 filed onOct. 23, 2019, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/927,627 filedon Oct. 29, 2019, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/928,326filed on Oct. 30, 2019, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.62/934,808 filed on Nov. 13, 2019. The entire disclosures of each andevery one of these listed applications are hereby incorporated herein byreference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention generally relates to advanced manufacturing methods. Morespecifically, this invention relates to advanced manufacturing methodssuitable for making electrochemical reactors.

BACKGROUND

A fuel cell is an electrochemical apparatus or electrochemical reactorthat converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity throughan electrochemical reaction. Sometimes, the heat generated by a fuelcell is also usable. There are many types of fuel cells. For example,proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are built out of membraneelectrode assemblies (MEA) which include the electrodes, electrolyte,catalyst, and gas diffusion layers. An ink of catalyst, carbon, andelectrode are sprayed or painted onto the solid electrolyte and carbonpaper is hot pressed on either side to protect the inside of the celland also act as electrodes. The most important part of the cell is thetriple phase boundary where the electrolyte, catalyst, and reactants mixand thus where the cell reactions actually occur. The membrane must notbe electrically conductive so that the half reactions do not mix.

PEMFC is a good candidate for vehicle and other mobile applications ofall sizes (e.g., mobile phones) because it is compact. However, thewater management is crucial to performance: too much water will floodthe membrane, too little will dry it; in both cases, power output willdrop. Water management is a difficult problem in PEM fuel cell systems,mainly because water in the membrane is attracted toward the cathode ofthe cell through polarization. Furthermore, the platinum catalyst on themembrane is easily poisoned by carbon monoxide (CO level needs to be nomore than one part per million). The membrane is also sensitive tothings like metal ions, which can be introduced by corrosion of metallicbipolar plates, or metallic components in the fuel cell system, or fromcontaminants in the fuel and/or oxidant.

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are a different class of fuel cells thatuse a solid oxide material as the electrolyte. SOFCs use a solid oxideelectrolyte to conduct negative oxygen ions from the cathode to theanode. The electrochemical oxidation of the oxygen ions with fuel (e.g.,hydrogen, carbon monoxide) occurs on the anode side. Some SOFCs useproton-conducting electrolytes (PC-SOFCs), which transport protonsinstead of oxygen ions through the electrolyte. Typically, SOFCs usingoxygen ion conducting electrolytes have higher operating temperaturesthan PC-SOFCs. In addition, SOFCs do not typically require expensiveplatinum catalyst material, which is typically necessary for lowertemperature fuel cells such as proton-exchange membrane fuel cells(PEMFCs), and are not vulnerable to carbon monoxide catalyst poisoning.Solid oxide fuel cells have a wide variety of applications, such asauxiliary power units for homes and vehicles as well as stationary powergeneration units for data centers. SOFCs comprise interconnects, whichare placed between each individual cell so that the cells are connectedin series and that the electricity generated by each cell is combined.One category of SOFC is segmented-in-series (SIS) type SOFC, in whichelectrical current flow is parallel to the electrolyte in the lateraldirection. Contrary to the SIS type SOFC, a different category of SOFChas electrical current flow perpendicular to the electrolyte in thelateral direction. These two categories of SOFCs are connecteddifferently and made differently.

For the fuel cell to function properly and continuously, components forbalance of plant (BOP) are needed. For example, the mechanical balanceof plant includes air preheater, reformer and/or pre-reformer,afterburner, water heat exchanger, anode tail gas oxidizer. Othercomponents are also needed, such as, electrical balance of plantincluding power electronics, hydrogen sulfide sensors, and fans. TheseBOP components are often complex and expensive. Fuel cells and fuel cellsystems are simply examples of the necessity and interest to developadvanced manufacturing system and method such that these efficientsystems may be economically produced and widely deployed.

SUMMARY

Herein discussed is a method of making an electrochemical reactorcomprising a) depositing a composition on a substrate to form a slice;b) drying the slice using a non-contact dryer; c) sintering the sliceusing electromagnetic radiation (EMR), wherein the electrochemicalreactor comprises an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte between theanode and the cathode. In an embodiment, the electrochemical reactorcomprises at least one unit, wherein the unit comprises the anode, thecathode, the electrolyte and an interconnect and wherein the unit has athickness of no greater than 1 mm. In an embodiment, the anode is nogreater than 50 microns in thickness, the cathode is no greater than 50microns in thickness, and the electrolyte is no greater than 10 micronsin thickness.

In an embodiment, the method comprises utilizing conductive heating instep b) or step c) or both. In an embodiment, the method comprisesrepeating steps a)-c) to produce the electrochemical reactor slice byslice. In an embodiment, the method further comprises d) measuring theslice temperature T within time t after the last exposure of the EMRwithout contacting the slice, wherein t is no greater than 5 seconds. Inan embodiment, the method further comprises e) comparing T withT_(sinter), wherein T_(sinter) is no less than 45% of the melting pointof the composition if the composition is non-metallic. In an embodiment,T_(sinter) is no less than 60% of the melting point of the compositionif the composition is metallic. In an embodiment, T_(sinter) ispreviously determined by correlating the measured temperature withmicrostructure images of the slice, scratch test of the slice,electrochemical performance test of the slice, dilatometry measurementsof the slice, conductivity measurements of the slice, or combinationsthereof. In an embodiment, the method comprises sintering the sliceusing electromagnetic radiation or conduction or both in a second stageif T is less than 90% of T_(sinter). In an embodiment, the porosity ofthe material after the second stage sintering is less than that afterthe first stage sintering. In an embodiment, the material has greaterdensification after the second stage sintering than after the firststage sintering.

In an embodiment, the composition comprises Cu, CuO, Cu2O, Ag, Ag₂O, Au,Au₂O, Au₂O₃, titanium, Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), 8YSZ (8 mol %YSZ powder), Yttirum, Zirconium, gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC or CGO),Samaria-doped ceria (SDC), Scandia-stabilized zirconia (SSZ), Lanthanumstrontium manganite (LSM), Lanthanum Strontium Cobalt Ferrite (LSCF),Lanthanum Strontium Cobaltite (LSC), Lanthanum Strontium GalliumMagnesium Oxide (LSGM), Nickel (Ni), NiO, NiO—YSZ, Cu-CGO, cerium,crofer, steel, lanthanum chromite, doped lanthanum chromite, ferriticsteel, stainless steel, or a combination thereof.

In an embodiment, the composition comprises particles having a particlesize distribution, wherein the size distribution that has at least oneof the following characteristics: (a) said size distribution comprisesD10 and D90, wherein 10% of the particles have a diameter no greaterthan D10 and 90% of the particles have a diameter no greater than D90,wherein D90/D10 is in the range of from 1.5 to 100; or (b) said sizedistribution is bimodal such that the average particle size in the firstmode is at least 5 times the average particle size in the second mode;or (c) said size distribution comprises D50, wherein 50% of theparticles have a diameter no greater than D50, wherein D50 is no greaterthan 100 nm.

In an embodiment, drying takes place for a period in the range of nogreater than 1 minute, or from 1 s to 30 s, or from 3 s to 10 s. In anembodiment, said non-contact dryer comprises infrared heater, hot airblower, ultraviolet light source, or combinations thereof. In anembodiment, the electromagnetic radiation is provided by a xenon lamp.

In an embodiment, the method comprises f) measuring a property of theslice; g) comparing the measured property with preset criteria; h)depositing the same composition on the slice to form another slice ifthe measured property does not meet the preset criteria or depositinganother composition on the slice to form another slice if the measuredproperty meets the preset criteria. In an embodiment, said anothercomposition is the same as the composition. In an embodiment, saidmeasuring a property of the slice comprises the use of photography,microscopy, radiography, ellipsometry, spectroscopy, structured-light 3Dscanning, 3D laser scanning, multi-spectral imaging, infrared imaging,energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis,or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, said measuring a property ofthe slice comprises measuring transmittance, reflectance, absorbance, orcombinations thereof of an electromagnetic radiation that interacts withthe slice during measuring. In an embodiment, the preset criteriacomprise the slice having a continuous surface extending as a whole inthe lateral direction. In an embodiment, the preset criteria comprisethe slice having a consistent composition. In an embodiment, saidmeasuring takes place within 30 minutes or within 1 minute aftersintering. In an embodiment, said comparing takes place within 30minutes or within 1 minute after measuring.

Further aspects and embodiments are provided in the following drawings,detailed description and claims. Unless specified otherwise, thefeatures as discussed herein are combinable and all such combinationsare within the scope of this disclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following drawings are provided to illustrate certain embodimentsdescribed herein. The drawings are merely illustrative and are notintended to limit the scope of claimed inventions and are not intendedto show every potential feature or embodiment of the claimed inventions.The drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale; in some instances,certain elements of the drawing may be enlarged with respect to otherelements of the drawing for purposes of illustration.

FIG. 1 illustrates a fuel cell comprising an anode, an electrolyte, anda cathode, according to an embodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 2 illustrates a fuel cell comprising an anode, an electrolyte, atleast one barrier layer, and a cathode, according to an embodiment ofthis disclosure.

FIG. 3 illustrates a fuel cell comprising an anode, a catalyst, anelectrolyte, at least one barrier layer, and a cathode, according to anembodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 4 illustrates a fuel cell comprising an anode, a catalyst, anelectrolyte, at least one barrier layer, a cathode, and an interconnect,according to an embodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 5 illustrates a fuel cell stack, according to an embodiment of thisdisclosure.

FIG. 6 illustrates a method and system of integrated deposition andheating using electromagnetic radiation (EMR), according to anembodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 7 illustrates SRTs of a first composition and a second compositionas a function of temperature, according to an embodiment of thisdisclosure.

FIG. 8 illustrates a process flow for forming and heating at least aportion of a fuel cell, according to an embodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 9 illustrates maximum height profile roughness, according to anembodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 10A illustrates an electrochemical (EC) gas producer comprising afirst electrode, an electrolyte, and a second electrode, wherein thefirst electrode receives methane and water or methane and carbon dioxideand the second electrode receives water, according to an embodiment ofthis disclosure.

FIG. 10B illustrates an EC gas producer comprising a first electrode, anelectrolyte, and a second electrode, wherein the first electrodereceives methane and water or methane and carbon dioxide and the secondelectrode receives nothing, according to an embodiment of thisdisclosure.

FIG. 10C illustrates an electrochemical compressor comprising anodes,electrolytes, cathodes, porous bipolar plates, a fluid distributor onone end, and a fluid collector on the other end, according to anembodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 11A illustrates a perspective view of a fuel cell cartridge (FCC),according to an embodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 11B illustrates cross-sectional views of a fuel cell cartridge(FCC), according to an embodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 11C illustrates top view and bottom view of a fuel cell cartridge(FCC), according to an embodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 12 is a scanning electron microscopy image (side view) illustratingan electrolyte (YSZ) printed and sintered on an electrode (NiO—YSZ),according to an embodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 13A illustrates a method and system of integrated quality controlfor manufacturing comprising deposition and heating, according to anembodiment of this disclosure.

FIG. 13B illustrates surfaces extending as a whole in the lateraldirection, with the top line being continuous and bottom two lines beingnoncontinuous, according to various embodiments of this disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description recites various aspects and embodiments of theinventions disclosed herein. No particular embodiment is intended todefine the scope of the invention. Rather, the embodiments providenon-limiting examples of various compositions, and methods that areincluded within the scope of the claimed inventions. The description isto be read from the perspective of one of ordinary skill in the art.Therefore, information that is well known to the ordinarily skilledartisan is not necessarily included.

The following terms and phrases have the meanings indicated below,unless otherwise provided herein. This disclosure may employ other termsand phrases not expressly defined herein. Such other terms and phrasesshall have the meanings that they would possess within the context ofthis disclosure to those of ordinary skill in the art. In someinstances, a term or phrase may be defined in the singular or plural. Insuch instances, it is understood that any term in the singular mayinclude its plural counterpart and vice versa, unless expresslyindicated to the contrary.

As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include pluralreferents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example,reference to “a substituent” encompasses a single substituent as well astwo or more substituents, and the like. As used herein, “for example,”“for instance,” “such as,” or “including” are meant to introduceexamples that further clarify more general subject matter. Unlessotherwise expressly indicated, such examples are provided only as an aidfor understanding embodiments illustrated in the present disclosure andare not meant to be limiting in any fashion. Nor do these phrasesindicate any kind of preference for the disclosed embodiment.

As used herein, compositions and materials are used interchangeablyunless otherwise specified. Each composition/material may have multipleelements, phases, and components. Heating as used herein refers toactively adding energy to the compositions or materials.

In situ in this disclosure refers to the treatment (e.g., heating)process being performed either at the same location or in the samedevice of the forming process of the compositions or materials. Forexample, the deposition process and the heating process are performed inthe same device and at the same location, in other words, withoutchanging the device and without changing the location within the device.For example, the deposition process and the heating process areperformed in the same device at different locations, which is alsoconsidered in situ.

In this disclosure, the term particle size is used to describe animportant property of the particles used in the disclosed methods.Particle size can be measured by various means known in the art, some ofwhich are based on light (such as dynamic light scattering), others onultrasound, or electric field, or gravity, or centrifugation. In allmethods the size is an indirect measure, obtained by a model thattransforms, in a mathematical way, the real particle shape into a simpleand standardized shape, like a sphere, where the size parameter, such asthe diameter of sphere, makes sense.

In this disclosure, a major face of an object is the face of the objectthat has a surface area larger than the average surface area of theobject, wherein the average surface area of the object is the totalsurface area of the object divided by the number of faces of the object.In some cases, a major face refers to a face of an item or object thathas a larger surface area than a minor face. In the cases of planar fuelcells or non-SIS type fuel cells, a major face is the face or surface inthe lateral direction.

As used herein, the phrase “strain rate tensor” or “SRT” is meant torefer to the rate of change of the strain of a material in the vicinityof a certain point and at a certain time. It can be defined as thederivative of the strain tensor with respect to time. When SRTs ordifference of SRTs are compared in this disclosure, it is the magnitudethat is being used.

As used herein, lateral refers to the direction that is perpendicular tothe stacking direction of the layers in a non-SIS type fuel cell. Thus,lateral direction refers to the direction that is perpendicular to thestacking direction of the layers in a fuel cell or the stackingdirection of the slices to form an object during deposition. Lateralalso refers to the direction that is the spread of deposition process.

Syngas (i.e., synthesis gas) in this disclosure refers to a mixtureconsisting primarily of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide.

In this disclosure, absorbance is a measure of the capacity of asubstance to absorb electromagnetic radiation (EMR) of a wavelength.Absorption of radiation refers to the energy absorbed by a substancewhen exposed to the radiation.

An impermeable layer or interconnect as used herein refers to a layer orinterconnect that is impermeable to fluid flow. For example, animpermeable layer has a permeability of less than 1 micro darcy, or lessthan 1 nano darcy. In this disclosure, an interconnect having no fluiddispersing element refers to interconnect having no elements (e.g.,channels) to disperse a fluid. Such an interconnect may have inlets andoutlets for materials or fluids to pass through. In this disclosure, theterm “microchannels” is used interchangeably with microfluidic channelsor microfluidic flow channels.

In this disclosure, sintering refers to a process to form a solid massof material by heat or pressure or combination thereof without meltingthe material to the extent of liquefaction. For example, materialparticles are coalesced into a solid or porous mass by being heated,wherein atoms in the material particles diffuse across the boundaries ofthe particles, causing the particles to fuse together and form one solidpiece. In this disclosure and the appended claims, T_(sinter) refers tothe temperature at which this phenomenon begins to take place.

As used herein, the term “absorber particles” refer to particles thathave greater absorption of energy than ceramic particles for a givenelectromagnetic radiation (EMR) spectrum. For example, when the ceramicparticles are CGO, absorber particles are copper particles or copperoxide particles or LSCF particles. For example, when the ceramicparticles are YSZ, absorber particles are copper particles or copperoxide particles or LSCF particles or Cu-CGO particles. In thisdisclosure, the absorber particles having no appreciable flow if theyare melted means that the layer of the absorber particles has a changein one dimension (length, width, height) by no more than 10% or by nomore than 5% or by no more than 1% (which most preferably is 0%).

In this disclosure, an insulator, such as that used in the insulatorlayer refers to a substance that does not readily allow the passage ofheat. For example, an insulator has a thermal conductivity of no greaterthan 1 W/(m K). Preferably, the insulator has a thermal conductivity ofno greater than 0.1 W/(m K).

This discussion takes the production of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)as an example. As one in the art recognizes, the methodology and themanufacturing process are applicable to any electrochemical device,reactor, vessel, catalyst, etc. Examples of electrochemical deviceinclude electrochemical (EC) gas producer, electrochemical (EC)compressor, and batteries. Catalysts include Fischer Tropsch (FT)catalyst, reformer catalyst. Reactor/vessel includes FT reactor, heatexchanger.

Integrated Deposition and Heating

Herein disclosed is a method comprising depositing a composition on asubstrate slice by slice to form an object; heating in situ the objectusing electromagnetic radiation (EMR); wherein said compositioncomprises a first material and a second material, wherein the secondmaterial has a higher absorbance of the radiation than the firstmaterial. In an embodiment, the EMR has a peak wavelength ranging from10 to 1500 nm and the EMR has a minimum energy density of 0.1 Joule/cm²,wherein the peak wavelength is on the basis of relative irradiance withrespect to wavelength. In an embodiment, the EMR comprises UV light,near ultraviolet light, near infrared light, infrared light, visiblelight, laser, electron beam.

FIG. 6 illustrates an object on a substrate formed by deposition nozzlesand EMR for heating in situ, according to an embodiment of thisdisclosure. In an embodiment, the first material comprisesYttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), 8YSZ (8 mol % YSZ powder), Yttirum,Zirconium, gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC or CGO), Samaria-doped ceria(SDC), Scandia-stabilized zirconia (SSZ), Lanthanum strontium manganite(LSM), Lanthanum Strontium Cobalt Ferrite (LSCF), Lanthanum StrontiumCobaltite (LSC), Lanthanum Strontium Gallium Magnesium Oxide (LSGM),Nickel, NiO, NiO—YSZ, Cu-CGO, Cu₂O, CuO, Cerium, copper, silver, crofer,steel, lanthanum chromite, doped lanthanum chromite, ferritic steel,stainless steel, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, the firstmaterial comprises YSZ, SSZ, CGO, SDC, NiO—YSZ, LSM-YSZ, CGO-LSCF, dopedlanthanum chromite, stainless steel, or combinations thereof. In anembodiment, the second material comprises carbon, nickel oxide, nickel,silver, copper, CGO, SDC, NiO—YSZ, NiO—SSZ, LSCF, LSM, doped lanthanumchromite ferritic steels, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment,said object comprises a catalyst, a catalyst support, a catalystcomposite, an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte, an electrode, aninterconnect, a seal, a fuel cell, an electrochemical gas producer, anelectrolyser, an electrochemical compressor, a reactor, a heatexchanger, a vessel, or combinations thereof.

In an embodiment, the second material is a deposited in the same sliceas the first material. In an embodiment, the second material is adeposited in a slice adjacent another slice that contains the firstmaterial. In an embodiment, said heating removes at least a portion ofthe second material. In an embodiment, said removing leaves minimalresidue of the portion of the second material. Preferably, this stepleaves minimal residue of the portion of the second material, which isto say that there is no significant residue that would interfere withthe subsequent steps in the process or the operation of the device beingconstructed. More preferably, this leaves no measurable reside of theportion of the second material.

In an embodiment, the second material adds thermal energy to the firstmaterial during heating. In an embodiment, the second material has aradiation absorbance that is at least 5 times that of the firstmaterial; or the second material has a radiation absorbance that is atleast 10 times that of the first material; the second material has aradiation absorbance that is at least 50 times that of the firstmaterial; the second material has a radiation absorbance that is atleast 100 times that of the first material.

In an embodiment, the second material has a peak absorbance wavelengthno less than 200 nm, or 250 nm, or 300 nm, or 400 nm, or 500 nm. In anembodiment, the first material has a peak absorbance wavelength nogreater than 700 nm, or 600 nm, or 500 nm, or 400 nm, or 300 nm. In anembodiment, the EMR has a peak wavelength no less than 200 nm, or 250nm, or 300 nm, or 400 nm, or 500 nm. In an embodiment, the secondmaterial comprises carbon, nickel oxide, nickel, silver, copper, CGO,NiO—YSZ, LSCF, LSM, ferritic steels, or combinations thereof. In somecases, the ferritic steel is Crofer 22 APU. In an embodiment, the firstmaterial comprises YSZ, CGO, NiO—YSZ, or LSM-YSZ. In an embodiment, thesecond material comprises LSCF, LSM, carbon, nickel oxide, nickel,silver, copper, or steel. In an embodiment, carbon comprises graphite,graphene, carbon nanoparticles, nano diamonds, or combinations thereof.

In an embodiment, said depositing comprises material jetting, binderjetting, inkjet printing, aerosol jetting, or aerosol jet printing, vatphotopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directedenergy deposition, sheet lamination, ultrasonic inkjet printing, orcombinations thereof.

In an embodiment, the method comprises controlling distance from the EMRto the substrate, EMR energy density, EMR spectrum, EMR voltage, EMRexposure duration, EMR exposure area, EMR exposure volume, EMR burstfrequency, EMR exposure repetition number, or combinations thereof. Inan embodiment, the object does not change location between depositingand heating. In an embodiment, the EMR has a power output of no lessthan 1 W, or 10 W, or 100 W, or 1000 W.

Herein also disclosed is a system comprising at least one depositionnozzle, an electromagnetic radiation (EMR) source, and a depositionreceiver, wherein the deposition receiver is configured to receive EMRexposure and deposition at the same location. In some cases, thereceiver is configured such that it receives deposition for a first timeperiod, moves to a different location in the system to receive EMRexposure for a second time period.

The following detailed discussion takes the production of solid oxidefuel cells (SOFCs) as an example. As one in the art recognizes, themethodology and the manufacturing process are applicable to all fuelcell types. As such, the production of all fuel cell types is within thescope of this disclosure.

Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing (AM) refers to a group of techniques that joinmaterials to make objects, usually slice by slice or layer upon layer.AM is contrasted to subtractive manufacturing methodologies, whichinvolve removing sections of a material by machining or cutting away. AMis also referred as additive fabrication, additive processes, additivetechniques, additive layer manufacturing, layer manufacturing, andfreeform fabrication. Some examples of AM are extrusion,photopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material jetting, binderjetting, directed energy deposition, lamination, direct metal lasersintering (DMLS), selective laser sintering (SLS), selective lasermelting (SLM), directed energy deposition (DED), laser metal deposition(LMD), electron beam (EBAM), and metal binder jetting. A 3D printer is atype of AM machine (AMM). An inkjet printer or ultrasonic inkjet printerare also AMM's.

In a first aspect, the invention is a method of making a fuel cellcomprising (a) producing an anode using an additive manufacturingmachine (AMM); (b) creating an electrolyte using the AMM; and (c) makinga cathode using the AMM. In an embodiment, the anode, the electrolyte,and the cathode are assembled into a fuel cell utilizing the AMM. In anembodiment, the fuel cell is formed using only the AMM. In anembodiment, steps (a), (b), and (c) exclude tape casting and excludescreen printing. In an embodiment, the method excludes compression inassembling. In an embodiment, the layers are deposited one on top ofanother and as such assembling is accomplished at the same time asdeposition. The method of this disclosure is useful in making planarfuel cells. The method of this disclosure is useful in making fuelcells, wherein electrical current flow is perpendicular to theelectrolyte in the lateral direction when the fuel cell is in use.

In an embodiment, the interconnect, the anode, the electrolyte, and thecathode are formed layer on layer, for example, printed layer on layer.It is important to note that, within the scope of the invention, theorder of forming these layers can be varied. In other words, either theanode or the cathode can be formed before the other. Naturally, theelectrolyte is formed so that it is between the anode and the cathode.The barrier layer(s), catalyst layer(s) and interconnect(s) are formedso as to lie in the appropriate position within the fuel cell to performtheir functions.

In an embodiment, each of the interconnect, the anode, the electrolyte,and the cathode has six faces. In some cases, the anode is printed onthe interconnect and is in contact with the interconnect; theelectrolyte is printed on the anode and is in contact with the anode;the cathode is printed on the electrolyte and is in contact with theelectrolyte. Each print is sintered, for example, using EMR. As such,the assembling process and the forming process are simultaneous, whichis not possible with conventional methods. Moreover, with the preferredembodiment, the needed electrical contact and gas tightness are alsoachieved at the same time. In contrast, conventional fuel cellassembling processes accomplish this via pressing or compression of thefuel cell components or layers. The pressing or compression process cancause cracks in the fuel cell layers that are undesirable.

In an embodiment, the method comprises making at least one barrier layerusing the AMM. In an embodiment, the at least one barrier layer is usedbetween the electrolyte and the cathode or between the electrolyte andthe anode or both. In an embodiment, the at least one barrier layer isassembled with the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode using theAMM. In an embodiment, no barrier layer is utilized in the fuel cell.

In an embodiment, the method comprises making an interconnect using theAMM. In an embodiment, the interconnect is assembled with the anode, theelectrolyte, and the cathode using the AMM. In an embodiment, the AMMforms a catalyst and incorporates said catalyst into the fuel cell.

In an embodiment, the anode, the electrolyte, the cathode, and theinterconnect are made at a temperature above 100° C. In an embodiment,the method comprises heating the fuel cell, wherein said fuel cellcomprises the anode, the electrolyte, the cathode, the interconnect, andoptionally at least one barrier layer. In an embodiment, the fuel cellcomprises a catalyst. In an embodiment, the method comprises heating thefuel cell to a temperature above 500° C. In an embodiment, the fuel cellis heated using EMR or oven curing.

In an embodiment, the AMM utilizes a multi-nozzle additive manufacturingmethod. In an embodiment, the multi-nozzle additive manufacturing methodcomprises nanoparticle jetting. In an embodiment, a first nozzledelivers a first material. In an embodiment, a second nozzle delivers asecond material. In an embodiment, a third nozzle delivers a thirdmaterial. In an embodiment, particles of a fourth material are placed incontact with a partially constructed fuel cell and bonded to thepartially constructed fuel cell using a laser, photoelectric effect,light, heat, polymerization, or binding. In an embodiment, the anode, orthe cathode, or the electrolyte comprises a first, second, third, orfourth material. In an embodiment, the AMM performs multiple additivemanufacturing techniques. In various embodiments, the additivemanufacturing techniques comprise extrusion, photopolymerization, powderbed fusion, material jetting, binder jetting, directed energydeposition, lamination. In various embodiments, additive manufacturingis a deposition technique comprising material jetting, binder jetting,inkjet printing, aerosol jetting, or aerosol jet printing, vatphotopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directedenergy deposition, sheet lamination, ultrasonic inkjet printing, orcombinations thereof.

Further discussed herein is a method of making a fuel cell stackcomprising (a) producing an anode using an additive manufacturingmachine (AMM); (b) creating an electrolyte using the AMM; (c) making acathode using the AMM; (d) making an interconnect using the AMM; whereinthe anode, the electrolyte, the cathode, and the interconnect form afirst fuel cell; (e) repeating steps (a)-(d) to make a second fuel cell;and (f) assembling the first fuel cell and the second fuel cell into afuel cell stack.

In an embodiment, the first fuel cell and the second fuel cell areformed from the anode, the electrolyte, the cathode, and theinterconnect utilizing the AMM. In an embodiment, the fuel cell stack isformed using only the AMM. In an embodiment, steps (a)-(f) exclude tapecasting and exclude screen printing.

In an embodiment, the method comprises making at least one barrier layerusing the AMM. In an embodiment, the at least one barrier layer is usedbetween the electrolyte and the cathode or between the electrolyte andthe anode or both for the first fuel cell and the second fuel cell.

In an embodiment, steps (a)-(d) are performed at a temperature above100° C. In an embodiment, steps (a)-(d) are performed at a temperaturefrom 100° C. to 500° C. In an embodiment, the AMM makes a catalyst andincorporates said catalyst into the fuel cell stack.

In an embodiment, the method comprises heating the fuel cell stack. Inan embodiment, the method comprises heating the fuel cell stack to atemperature above 500° C. In an embodiment, the fuel cell stack isheated using EMR and/or oven curing. In an embodiment, the laser has alaser beam, wherein said laser beam is expanded to create a heating zonewith uniform power density. In an embodiment, the laser beam is expandedby the use of one or more mirrors. In an embodiment, each layer of thefuel cell is EMR cured separately. In an embodiment, a combination offuel cell layers is EMR cured together. In an embodiment, the first fuelcell is EMR cured, assembled with the second fuel cell, and then thesecond fuel cell is EMR cured. In an embodiment, the first fuel cell isassembled with the second fuel cell, and then the first fuel cell andthe second fuel cell are EMR cured separately. In an embodiment, thefirst fuel cell and the second fuel cell are EMR cured separately, andthen the first fuel cell is assembled with the second fuel cell to forma fuel cell stack. In an embodiment, the first fuel cell is assembledwith the second fuel cell to form a fuel cell stack, and then the fuelcell stack is EMR cured.

Also discussed herein is a method of making a multiplicity of fuel cellscomprising (a) producing a multiplicity of anodes simultaneously usingan additive manufacturing machine (AMM); (b) creating a multiplicity ofelectrolytes using the AMM simultaneously; and (c) making a multiplicityof cathodes using the AMM simultaneously. In an embodiment, the anodes,the electrolytes, and the cathodes are assembled into fuel cellsutilizing the AMM simultaneously. In an embodiment, the fuel cells areformed using only the AMM.

In an embodiment, the method comprises making at least one barrier layerusing the AMM for each of the multiplicity of fuel cells simultaneously.In an embodiment, said at least one barrier layer is used between theelectrolyte and the cathode or between the electrolyte and the anode orboth. In an embodiment, said at least one barrier layer is assembledwith the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode using the AMM for eachfuel cell.

In an embodiment, the method comprises making an interconnect using theAMM for each of the multiplicity of fuel cells simultaneously. In anembodiment, said interconnect is assembled with the anode, theelectrolyte, and the cathode using the AMM for each fuel cell. In anembodiment, the AMM forms a catalyst for each of the multiplicity offuel cells simultaneously and incorporates said catalyst into each ofthe fuel cells. In an embodiment, heating of each layer or heating of acombination of layers of the multiplicity of fuel cells takes placesimultaneously. In an embodiment, the multiplicity of fuel cells is 20fuel cells or more.

In an embodiment, the AMM uses different nozzles to jet/print differentmaterials at the same time. For example, in an AMM, a first nozzle makesan anode for fuel cell 1, a second nozzle makes a cathode for fuel cell2, and a third nozzle makes an electrolyte for fuel cell 3, at the sametime. For example, in an AMM, a first nozzle makes an anode for fuelcell 1, a second nozzle makes a cathode for fuel cell 2, a third nozzlemakes an electrolyte for fuel cell 3, and a fourth nozzle makes aninterconnect for fuel cell 4, at the same time.

Disclosed herein is an additive manufacturing machine (AMM) comprising achamber, wherein manufacturing of fuel cells takes place, wherein saidchamber is able to withstand a temperature of at least 300° C. In anembodiment, said chamber enables production of the fuel cells. In anembodiment, said chamber enables heating of the fuel cells in situ,meaning that the fuel cells are heated in the same machine, andpreferably in the same location in that machine as the components of thefuel cell were deposited.

In an embodiment, said chamber is heated by laser, or electromagneticwaves/electromagnetic radiation (EMR), or hot fluid, or heating elementassociated with the chamber, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment,said heating element comprises a heating surface or a heating coil or aheating rod. In an embodiment, said chamber is configured to applypressure to the fuel cells inside. In an embodiment, the pressure isapplied via a moving element associated with the chamber. In anembodiment, said moving element is a moving stamp or plunger. In anembodiment, said chamber is configured to withstand pressure. In anembodiment, said chamber is configured to be pressurized by a fluid orde-pressurized. In an embodiment, said fluid in the chamber is changedor replaced.

In some cases, the chamber is enclosed. In some cases, the chamber issealed. In some cases, the chamber is open. In some cases, the chamberis a platform without top and side walls.

Referring to FIG. 6, 601 represents deposition nozzles or materialjetting nozzles; 602 represents EMR source, e.g., xenon lamp; 603represents object being formed; and 604 represents chamber as a part ofan AMM. As illustrated in FIG. 6 , the chamber or receiver 604 isconfigured to receive both deposition from nozzles and radiation from anEMR source. In various embodiments, deposition nozzles 601 are movable.In various embodiments, the chamber or receiver 604 is movable. Invarious embodiments, the EMR source 602 is movable. In variousembodiments, the object comprises a catalyst, a catalyst support, acatalyst composite, an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte, an electrode,an interconnect, a seal, a fuel cell, an electrochemical gas producer,an electrolyser, an electrochemical compressor, a reactor, a heatexchanger, a vessel, or combinations thereof.

Additive Manufacturing techniques suitable for this disclosure compriseextrusion, photopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material jetting,binder jetting, directed energy deposition, and lamination. In anembodiment, Additive Manufacturing is extrusion additive manufacturing.Extrusion additive manufacturing involves the spatially controlleddeposition of material (e.g., thermoplastics). It is also referred to asfused filament fabrication (FFF) or fused deposition modeling (FDM) inthis disclosure.

In an embodiment, Additive Manufacturing is photopolymerization, i.e.,stereolithography (SLA) for the process of this disclosure. SLA involvesspatially-defined curing of a photoactive liquid (a “photoresin”), usinga scanning laser or a high-resolution projected image, transforming itinto a crosslinked solid. Photopolymerization produces parts withdetails and dimensions ranging from the micrometer- to meter-scales.

In an embodiment, Additive Manufacturing is Powder bed fusion (PBF). PBFAM processes build objects by melting powdered feedstock, such as apolymer or metal. PBF processes begin by spreading a thin layer ofpowder across the build area. Cross sections are then melted a layer ata time, most often using a laser, electron beam, or intense infraredlamps. In an embodiment, PBF of metals is selective laser melting (SLM)or electron beam melting (EBM). In an embodiment, PBF of polymers isselective laser sintering (SLS). In various embodiments, SLS systemsprint thermoplastic polymer materials, polymer composites, or ceramics.In various embodiments, SLM systems are suitable for a variety of puremetals and alloys, wherein the alloys are compatible with the rapidsolidification that occurs in SLM.

In an embodiment, Additive Manufacturing is material jetting. Additivemanufacturing by material jetting is accomplished by depositing smalldrops (or droplets) of material, with spatial control. In variousembodiments, material jetting is performed three dimensionally (3D) ortwo dimensionally (2D) or both. In an embodiment, 3D jetting isaccomplished layer by layer. In an embodiment, print preparationconverts the computer-aided design (CAD), along with specifications ofmaterial composition, color, and other variables to the printinginstructions for each layer.

In an embodiment, Additive Manufacturing utilizes binder jetting. Binderjetting AM involves inkjet deposition of a liquid binder onto a powderbed. In some cases, binder jetting combines physics of other AMprocesses: spreading of powder to make the powder bed (analogous toSLS/SLM), and inkjet printing. A binder jetting machine distributes alayer of powder onto a build platform. A liquid bonding agent is appliedthrough inkjet print heads bonding the particles together. The buildplatform is lowered and the next layer of powder is laid out on top. Byrepeating the process of laying out powder and bonding, the parts arebuilt up in the powder bed. Binder Jetting does not require any supportstructures. The built parts lie in the bed of not bonded powder. Theentire build volume can therefore be filled with several parts,including stacking and pyramiding of parts. These are then all producedtogether. Binder Jetting works with almost any material that isavailable in powder form.

In an embodiment, Additive Manufacturing utilizes aerosol jet printing.Aerosol Jet Printing (sometimes known as Maskless Mesoscale MaterialsDeposition or M3D)[24] begins with atomization of an ink, such as byultrasonic or pneumatic means, typically producing droplets on the orderof one to two micrometers in diameter. These droplets then preferablyflow through a virtual impactor which is designed to deflect thedroplets having lower momentum away from the stream. This step can helpmaintain a tight droplet size distribution. The droplets are entrainedin a gas stream and delivered to the print head. Here, an annular flowof clean gas is preferably introduced around the aerosol stream to focusthe droplets into a tightly collimated beam of material. Preferably, thecombined gas streams exit the print head through a converging nozzlethat compresses the aerosol stream to a diameter as small as 10 μm. Thejet of droplets exits the print head at high velocity, such as ^(˜)50meters/second, and impinges upon the substrate.

Despite the high velocity, the aerosol jet printing process isrelatively gentle, meaning that substrate damage typically does notoccur and there is generally minimal splatter or overspray from thedroplets. Once deposition is complete, the printed ink can require posttreatment to attain final electrical and mechanical properties.

In an embodiment, Additive Manufacturing is directed energy deposition(DED). Instead of using a powder bed as discussed above, the DED processuses a directed flow of powder or a wire feed, along with an energyintensive source such as laser, electric arc, or electron beam. In anembodiment, DED is a direct-write process, wherein the location ofmaterial deposition is determined by movement of the deposition head,which allows large metal structures to be built without the constraintsof a powder bed.

In an embodiment, Additive Manufacturing is Lamination AM, or LaminatedObject Manufacturing (LOM). In an embodiment, consecutive layers ofsheet material are consecutively bonded and cut in order to form a 3Dstructure.

Contrary to traditional methods of manufacturing a fuel cell stack,which can comprise over 100 steps, including but not limited to milling,grinding, filtering, analyzing, mixing, binding, evaporating, aging,drying, extruding, spreading, tape casting, screen printing, stacking,heating, pressing, sintering, and compressing, the method of thisdisclosure manufactures a fuel cell or a fuel cell stack using one AMM.

The AMM of this disclosure preferably performs both extrusion and inkjetting to manufacture a fuel cell or fuel cell stack. Extrusion is usedto manufacture thicker layers of a fuel cell, such as, the anode and/orthe cathode. Ink jetting is used to manufacture thin layers of a fuelcell. Ink jetting is used to manufacture the electrolyte. The AMMoperates at temperature ranges sufficient to enable curing in the AMMitself. Such temperature ranges are 100° C. or above, such as 100°C.-300° C. or 100° C.-500° C.

As an example, all the layers of a fuel cell are formed and assembledvia printing. The material for making the anode, the cathode, theelectrolyte, and the interconnect, respectively, is made into an inkform comprising a solvent and particles (e.g., nanoparticles). There aretwo categories of ink formulations—aqueous inks and non-aqueous inks. Insome cases, the aqueous ink comprises an aqueous solvent (e.g., water,deionized water), particles, a dispersant, and a surfactant. In somecases, the aqueous ink comprises an aqueous solvent (e.g., water,deionized water), particles, a dispersant, a surfactant, but nopolymeric binder. The aqueous ink optionally comprises a co-solvent,such as an organic miscible solvent (methanol, ethanol, isopropylalcohol). Such co-solvents preferably have a lower boiling point thanwater. The dispersant is an electrostatic dispersant, a stericdispersant, an ionic dispersant, a non-ionic dispersant, or acombination thereof. The surfactant is preferably non-ionic, such as analcohol alkoxylate, an alcohol ethoxylate. The non-aqueous ink comprisesan organic solvent (e.g., methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, butanol)and particles.

For example, CGO powder is mixed with water to form an aqueous ink witha dispersant added and a surfactant added but with no polymeric binderadded. The CGO fraction based on mass is in the range of from 10 wt % to25 wt %. For example, CGO powder is mixed with ethanol to form anon-aqueous ink with polyvinyl butaryl added. The CGO fraction based onmass is in the range of from 3 wt % to 30 wt %. For example, LSCF ismixed with n-butanol or ethanol to form a non-aqueous ink with polyvinylbutaryl added. The LSCF fraction based on mass is in the range of from10 wt % to 40 wt %. For example, YSZ particles are mixed with water toform an aqueous ink with a dispersant added and a surfactant added butwith no polymeric binder added. The YSZ fraction based on mass is in therange of from 3 wt % to 40 wt %. For example, NiO particles are mixedwith water to form an aqueous ink with a dispersant added and asurfactant added but with no polymeric binder added. The NiO fractionbased on mass is in the range of from 5 wt % to 25 wt %.

As an example, for the cathode of a fuel cell, LSCF or LSM particles aredissolved in a solvent, wherein the solvent is water or an alcohol(e.g., butanol) or a mixture of alcohols. Organic solvents other thanalcohols may also be used. As an example, LSCF is deposited (e.g.,printed) into a layer. A xenon lamp irradiates the LSCF layer with EMRto sinter the LSCF. The flash lamp is a 10 kW unit applied at a voltageof 400V and a frequency of 10 Hz for a total exposure duration of 1000ms.

For example, for the electrolyte, YSZ particles are mixed with asolvent, wherein the solvent is water (e.g., de-ionized water) (e.g.,de-ionized water) or an alcohol (e.g., butanol) or a mixture ofalcohols. Organic solvents other than alcohols may also be used. For theinterconnect, metallic particles (such as, silver nanoparticles) aredissolved in a solvent, wherein the solvent may include water (e.g.,de-ionized water), organic solvents (e.g. mono-, di-, or tri-ethyleneglycols or higher ethylene glycols, propylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol orethers of such glycols, thiodiglycol, glycerol and ethers and estersthereof, polyglycerol, mono-, di-, and tri-ethanolamine, propanolamine,N,N-dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylacetamide,N-methylpyrrolidone, 1,3-dimethylimidazolidone, methanol, ethanol,isopropanol, n-propanol, diacetone alcohol, acetone, methyl ethylketone, propylene carbonate), and combinations thereof. For a barrierlayer in a fuel cell, CGO particles are dissolved in a solvent, whereinthe solvent is water (e.g., de-ionized water) or an alcohol (e.g.,butanol) or a mixture of alcohols. Organic solvents other than alcoholsmay also be used. CGO is used as barrier layer for LSCF. YSZ may also beused as a barrier layer for LSM. In some cases, for the aqueous inkswhere water is the solvent, no polymeric binder is added to the aqueousinks.

The manufacturing process of a fuel cell sometimes comprises more than100 steps utilizing dozens of machines. According to an embodiment ofthis disclosure, a method of making a fuel cell comprises using only oneadditive manufacturing machine (AMM) to manufacture a fuel cell, whereinthe fuel cell comprises an anode, electrolyte, and a cathode. In anembodiment, the fuel cell comprises at least one barrier layer, forexample, between the electrolyte and the cathode, or between theelectrolyte and the cathode, or both. The at least one barrier layer isalso made by the same single AMM. In an embodiment, the AMM alsoproduces an interconnect and assembles the interconnect with the anode,the cathode, the barrier layer(s), and the electrolyte. Suchmanufacturing method and system are applicable not only to making fuelcells but also for making any electrochemical device. The followingdiscussion takes fuel cell as an example, but any reactor or catalyst iswithin the scope of this disclosure.

In various embodiments, the single AMM makes a first fuel cell, whereinthe fuel cell comprises the anode, the electrolyte, the cathode, the atleast one barrier layer, and the interconnect. In various embodiments,the single AMM makes a second fuel cell. In various embodiments, thesingle AMM assembles the first fuel cell with the second fuel cell toform a fuel cell stack. In various embodiments, the production using AMMis repeated as many times as desired; and a fuel cell stack is assembledusing the AMM. In an embodiment, the various layers of the fuel cell areproduced by the AMM above ambient temperature, for example, above 100°C., from 100° C. to 500° C., from 100° C. to 300° C. In variousembodiments, the fuel cell or fuel cell stack is heated after it isformed/assembled. In an embodiment, the fuel cell or fuel cell stack isheated at a temperature above 500° C. In an embodiment, the fuel cell orfuel cell stack is heated at a temperature from 500° C. to 1500° C.

In various embodiments, the AMM comprises a chamber where themanufacturing of fuel cells takes place. This chamber is able towithstand high temperature to enable the production of the fuel cells.In an embodiment, this high temperature is at least 300° C. In anembodiment, this high temperature is at least 500° C. In an embodiment,this high temperature is at least 1000° C. In an embodiment, this hightemperature is at least 1500° C. In some cases, this chamber alsoenables heating of the fuel cells to take place in the chamber. Variousheating methods are applied, such as laser heating/curing,electromagnetic wave heating, hot fluid heating, or heating elementassociated with the chamber. The heating element may be a heatingsurface or a heating coil or a heating rod and is associated with thechamber such that the content in the chamber is heated to the desiredtemperature range. In various embodiments, the chamber of the AMM isable to apply pressure to the fuel cell(s) inside, for example, via amoving element (e.g., a moving stamp or plunger). In variousembodiments, the chamber of the AMM is able to withstand pressure. Thechamber can be pressurized by a fluid and de-pressurized as desired. Thefluid in the chamber can also be changed/replaced as needed.

In an embodiment, the fuel cell or fuel cell stack is heated using EMR.In an embodiment, the fuel cell or fuel cell stack is heated using ovencuring. In an embodiment, the laser beam is expanded (for example, bythe use of one or more mirrors) to create a heating zone with uniformpower density. In an embodiment, each layer of the fuel cell is EMRcured separately. In an embodiment, a combination of fuel cell layers isEMR cured separately, for example, a combination of the anode, theelectrolyte, and the cathode layers. In an embodiment, a first fuel cellis EMR cured, assembled with a second fuel cell, and then the secondfuel cell is EMR cured. In an embodiment, a first fuel cell is assembledwith a second fuel cell, and then the first fuel cell and the secondfuel cell are EMR cured separately. In an embodiment, a first fuel cellis assembled with a second fuel cell to form a fuel cell stack, and thenthe fuel cell stack is EMR cured. The sequence of laser heating/curingand assembling is applicable to all other heating methods.

In an embodiment, the AMM produces each layer of a multiplicity of fuelcells simultaneously. In an embodiment, the AMM assembles each layer ofa multiplicity of fuel cells simultaneously. In an embodiment, heatingof each layer or heating of a combination of layers of a multiplicity offuel cells takes place simultaneously. All the discussion and all thefeatures herein for a fuel cell or a fuel cell stack are applicable tothe production, assembling, and heating of the multiplicity of fuelcells. In an embodiment, a multiplicity of fuel cells is 20 or more. Inan embodiment, a multiplicity of fuel cells is 50 or more. In anembodiment, a multiplicity of fuel cells is 80 or more. In anembodiment, a multiplicity of fuel cells is 100 or more. In anembodiment, a multiplicity of fuel cells is 500 or more. In anembodiment, a multiplicity of fuel cells is 800 or more. In anembodiment, a multiplicity of fuel cells is 1000 or more. In anembodiment, a multiplicity of fuel cells is 5000 or more. In anembodiment, a multiplicity of fuel cells is 10,000 or more.

Treatment Process

Herein disclosed is a treatment process that heats the material to causesintering or curing. For example, the treatment process comprisesexposing a sample to a source of electromagnetic radiation (EMR). In anembodiment, the EMR treats a sample having a first material. In variousembodiments, the EMR has a peak wavelength ranging from 10 to 1500 nm.In various embodiments, the EMR has a minimum energy density of 0.1Joule/cm². In an embodiment, the EMR has a burst frequency of 10⁻⁴-1000Hz or 1-1000 Hz or 10-1000 Hz. In an embodiment, the EMR has an exposuredistance of no greater than 50 mm. In an embodiment, the EMR has anexposure duration no less than 0.1 ms or 1 ms. In an embodiment, the EMRis applied with a capacitor voltage of no less than 100V. For example, asingle pulse of EMR is applied with an exposure distance of about 10 mmand an exposure duration of 5-20 ms. For example, multiple pulses of EMRare applied at a burst frequency of 100 Hz with an exposure distance ofabout 10 mm and an exposure duration of 5-20 ms. In an embodiment, theEMR consists of one exposure. In an embodiment, the EMR comprises nogreater than 10 exposures, or no greater than 100 exposures, or nogreater than 1000 exposures, or no greater than 10,000 exposures.

In various embodiments, metals and ceramics are sintered almostinstantly (milliseconds for <<10 microns) using pulsed light. Thesintering temperature is controlled to be in the range of from 100° C.to 2000° C. The sintering temperature is tailored as a function ofdepth. In one case, the surface temperature is 1000° C. and thesub-surface is kept at 100° C., wherein the sub-surface is 100 micronsbelow the surface. In an embodiment, the material suitable for thistreatment process includes Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), 8YSZ (8 mol% YSZ powder), Yttirum, Zirconium, gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC or CGO),Samaria-doped ceria (SDC), Scandia-stabilized zirconia (SSZ), Lanthanumstrontium manganite (LSM), Lanthanum Strontium Cobalt Ferrite (LSCF),Lanthanum Strontium Cobaltite (LSC), Lanthanum Strontium GalliumMagnesium Oxide (LSGM), Nickel, NiO, NiO—YSZ, Cu-CGO, Cu₂O, CuO, Cerium,copper, silver, crofer, steel, lanthanum chromite, doped lanthanumchromite, ferritic steel, stainless steel, or combinations thereof.

This treatment process is applicable in the manufacturing process of afuel cell. In an embodiment, a layer of a fuel cell (anode, cathode,electrolyte, seal, catalyst) is treated using the process of thisdisclosure to be heated, cured, sintered, sealed, alloyed, foamed,evaporated, restructured, dried, or annealed. In an embodiment, aportion of a layer of a fuel cell (anode, cathode, electrolyte, seal,catalyst) is treated using the process of this disclosure to be heated,cured, sintered, sealed, alloyed, foamed, evaporated, restructured,dried, or annealed. In an embodiment, a combination of layers of a fuelcell (anode, cathode, electrolyte, seal, catalyst) is treated using theprocess of this disclosure to be heated, cured, sintered, sealed,alloyed, foamed, evaporated, restructured, dried, or annealed, whereinthe layers may be a complete layer or a partial layer.

The treatment process of this disclosure is preferably rapid, with thetreatment duration varied from microseconds to milliseconds. Thetreatment duration is accurately controlled. The treatment process ofthis disclosure produces fuel cell layers that have no crack or haveminimal cracking. The treatment process of this disclosure controls thepower density or energy density in the treatment volume of the materialbeing treated. The treatment volume is accurately controlled. In anembodiment, the treatment process of this disclosure provides the sameenergy density or different energy densities in a treatment volume. Inan embodiment, the treatment process of this disclosure provides thesame treatment duration or different treatment durations in a treatmentvolume. In an embodiment, the treatment process of this disclosureprovides simultaneous treatment for one or more treatment volumes. In anembodiment, the treatment process of this disclosure providessimultaneous treatment for one or more fuel cell layers or partiallayers or combination of layers. In an embodiment, the treatment volumeis varied by changing the treatment depth.

In an embodiment, a first portion of a treatment volume is treated byelectromagnetic radiation of a first wavelength; a second portion of thetreatment volume is treated by electromagnetic radiation of a secondwavelength. In some cases, the first wavelength is the same as thesecond wavelength. In some cases, the first wavelength is different fromthe second wavelength. In an embodiment, the first portion of atreatment volume has a different energy density from the second portionof the treatment volume. In an embodiment, the first portion of atreatment volume has a different treatment duration from the secondportion of the treatment volume.

In an embodiment, the EMR has a broad emission spectrum so that thedesired effects are achieved for a wide range of materials havingdifferent absorption characteristics. In this disclosure, absorption ofelectromagnetic radiation (EMR) refers to the process, wherein theenergy of a photon is taken up by matter, such as the electrons of anatom. Thus, the electromagnetic energy is transformed into internalenergy of the absorber, for example, thermal energy. For example, theEMR spectrum extends from the deep ultraviolet (UV) range to the nearinfrared (IR) range, with peak pulse powers at 220 nm wavelength. Thepower of such EMR is on the order of Megawatts. Such EMR sources performtasks such as breaking chemical bonds, sintering, ablating orsterilizing.

In an embodiment, the EMR has an energy density of no less than 0.1, 1,or 10 Joule/cm². In an embodiment, the EMR has a power output of no lessthan 1 watt (W), 10 W, 100 W, 1000 W. The EMR delivers power to thesample of no less than 1 W, 10 W, 100 W, 1000 W. In an embodiment, suchEMR exposure heats the material in the sample. In an embodiment, the EMRhas a range or a spectrum of different wavelengths. In variousembodiments, the treated sample is at least a portion of an anode,cathode, electrolyte, catalyst, barrier layer, or interconnect of a fuelcell.

In an embodiment, the peak wavelength of the EMR is between 50 and 550nm or between 100 and 300 nm. In an embodiment, the absorption of atleast a portion of the sample for at least one frequency of the EMRbetween 10 and 1500 nm is no less than 30% or no less than 50%. In anembodiment, the absorption of at least a portion of the sample for atleast one frequency between 50 and 550 nm is no less than 30% or no lessthan 50%. In an embodiment, the absorption of at least a portion of thesample for at least one frequency between 100 and 300 nm is no less than30% or no less than 50%.

Sintering is the process of compacting and forming a solid mass ofmaterial by heat or pressure without melting it to the point ofliquefaction. In this disclosure, the sample under EMR exposure issintered but not melted. In an embodiment, the EMR is UV light, nearultraviolet light, near infrared light, infrared light, visible light,laser, electron beam, microwave. In an embodiment, the sample is exposedto the EMR for no less than 1 microsecond, no less than 1 millisecond.In an embodiment, the sample is exposed to the EMR for less than 1second at a time or less than 10 seconds at a time. In an embodiment,the sample is exposed to the EMR for less than 1 second or less than 10seconds. In an embodiment, the sample is exposed to the EMR repeatedly,for example, more than 1 time, more than 3 times, more than 10 times. Inan embodiment, the sample is distanced from the source of the EMR forless than 50 cm, less than 10 cm, less than 1 cm, or less than 1 mm.

In an embodiment, after EMR exposure a second material is added to orplaced on to the first material. In various cases, the second materialis the same as the first material. In an embodiment, the second materialis exposed to the EMR. In some cases, a third material is added. In anembodiment, the third material is exposed to the EMR.

In an embodiment, the first material comprises YSZ, 8YSZ, Yttirum,Zirconium, GDC, SDC, LSM, LSCF, LSC, Nickel, NiO, Cerium. In anembodiment, the second material comprises graphite. In an embodiment,the electrolyte, anode, or cathode comprises a second material. In somecases, the volume fraction of the second material in the electrolyte,anode, or cathode is less than 20%, 10%, 3%, or 1%. The absorption rateof the second material for at least one frequency (e.g., between 10 and1500 nm or between 100 and 300 nm or between 50 and 550 nm) is greaterthan 30% or greater than 50%.

In various embodiments, one or a combination of parameters arecontrolled, wherein such parameters include distance between the EMRsource and the sample, the energy density of the EMR, the spectrum ofthe EMR, the voltage of the EMR, the duration of exposure, the burstfrequency, and the number of EMR exposures. Preferably, these parametersare controlled to minimize the formation of cracks in the sample.

In an embodiment, the EMR energy is delivered to a surface area of noless than 1 mm2, or no less than 1 cm2, or no less than 10 cm2, or noless than 100 cm2. In some cases, during EMR exposure of the firstmaterial, at least a portion of an adjacent material is heated at leastin part by conduction of heat from the first material. In variousembodiments, the layers of the fuel cell (e.g., anode, cathode,electrolyte) are thin. Preferably they are no greater than 30 microns,no greater than 10 microns, or no greater than 1 micron.

In an embodiment, the first material of the sample is in the form of apowder, sol gel, colloidal suspension, hybrid solution, or sinteredmaterial. In various embodiments, the second material may be added byvapor deposition. In an embodiment, the second material coats the firstmaterial. In an embodiment, the second material reacts with light, e.g.focused light, as by a laser and sinter or anneal with the firstmaterial.

Advantages

The preferred treatment process of this disclosure enables rapidmanufacturing of fuel cells by eliminating traditional, costly, timeconsuming, expensive sintering processes and replacing them with rapid,in-situ methods that allow continuous manufacturing of the layers of afuel cell in a single machine if desired. This process also shortenssintering time from hours and days to seconds or milliseconds or evenmicroseconds.

In various embodiments, this treatment method is used in combinationwith manufacturing techniques like screen printing, tape casting,spraying, sputtering, physical vapor deposition, and additivemanufacturing.

This preferred treatment method enables tailored and controlled heatingby tuning EMR characteristics (such as, wavelengths, energy density,burst frequency, and exposure duration) combined with controllingthicknesses of the layers of the sample and heat conduction intoadjacent layers to allow each layer to sinter, anneal, or cure at eachdesired target temperature. This process enables more uniform energyapplication, decreases or eliminates cracking, which improveselectrolyte performance. The sample treated with this preferred processalso has less thermal stress due to more uniform heating.

Particle Size Control

Without wishing to be limited by any theory, we have unexpectedlydiscovered that the sintering process may require much less energyexpenditure and much less time than what is traditionally needed if theparticle size distribution of the particles in a material is controlledto meet certain criteria. In some cases, such particle size distributioncomprises D10 and D90, wherein 10% of the particles have a diameter nogreater than D10 and 90% of the particles have a diameter no greaterthan D90, wherein D90/D10 is in the range of from 1.5 to 100. In somecases, such particle size distribution is bimodal such that the averageparticle size in the first mode is at least 5 times the average particlesize in the second mode. In some cases, such particle size distributioncomprises D50, wherein 50% of the particles have a diameter no greaterthan D50, wherein D50 is no greater than 100 nm. The sintering processesutilize electromagnetic radiation (EMR), or plasma, or a furnace, or hotfluid, or a heating element, or combinations thereof. preferably, thesintering processes utilize electromagnetic radiation (EMR). Forexample, without the processes as disclosed herein, an EMR source justsufficient to sinter a material has power capacity P. With the processesas disclosed herein, the material is sintered with EMR sources havingmuch less power capacity, e.g., 50% P or less, 40% P or less, 30% P orless, 20% P or less, 10% P or less, 5% P or less.

Herein disclosed is a method of sintering a material comprising mixingparticles with a liquid to form a dispersion, wherein the particles havea particle size distribution comprising D10 and D90, wherein 10% of theparticles have a diameter no greater than D10 and 90% of the particleshave a diameter no greater than D90, wherein D90/D10 is in the range offrom 1.5 to 100; depositing the dispersion on a substrate to form alayer; and treating the layer to cause at least a portion of theparticles to sinter.

In an embodiment, the particle size distribution is a numberdistribution determined by dynamic light scattering. Dynamic lightscattering (DLS) is a technique that can be used to determine the sizedistribution profile of small particles in a dispersion or suspension.In the scope of DLS, temporal fluctuations are typically analyzed bymeans of the intensity or photon auto-correlation function (also knownas photon correlation spectroscopy or quasi-elastic light scattering).In the time domain analysis, the autocorrelation function (ACF) usuallydecays starting from zero delay time, and faster dynamics due to smallerparticles lead to faster decorrelation of scattered intensity trace. Ithas been shown that the intensity ACF is the Fourier transformation ofthe power spectrum, and therefore the DLS measurements can be equallywell performed in the spectral domain.

In an embodiment, the particle size distribution is determined bytransmission electron microscopy (TEM). TEM is a microscopy technique inwhich a beam of electrons is transmitted through a specimen to form animage. In this case, the specimen is most often a suspension on a grid.An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons with the sampleas the beam is transmitted through the specimen. The image is thenmagnified and focused onto an imaging device, such as a fluorescentscreen or a sensor such as a scintillator attached to a charge-coupleddevice.

Herein disclosed is a method of sintering a material comprising mixingparticles with a liquid to form a dispersion, wherein the particles havea particle size distribution comprising D50, wherein 50% of theparticles have a diameter no greater than D50, wherein D50 is no greaterthan 100 nm; depositing the dispersion on a substrate to form a layer;and treating the layer to cause at least a portion of the particles tosinter. In various embodiments, D50 is no greater than 50 nm, or nogreater than 30 nm, or no greater than 20 nm, or no greater than 10 nm,or no greater than 5 nm. In an embodiment, the layer has a thickness ofno greater than 1 mm or no greater than 500 microns or no greater than300 microns or no greater than 100 microns or no greater than 50microns.

In an embodiment, depositing comprises material jetting, binder jetting,inkjet printing, aerosol jetting, or aerosol jet printing, vatphotopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directedenergy deposition, sheet lamination, ultrasonic inkjet printing, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, said liquid comprises water andat least one organic solvent having a lower boiling point than water andmiscible with water. In an embodiment, said liquid comprises water, asurfactant, a dispersant, and no polymeric binder. In an embodiment,said liquid comprises one or more organic solvents and no water. In anembodiment, the particles comprise Cu, CuO, Cu₂O, Ag, Ag₂O, Au, Au₂O,Au₂O₃, titanium, Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), 8YSZ (8 mol % YSZpowder), Yttirum, Zirconium, gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC or CGO),Samaria-doped ceria (SDC), Scandia-stabilized zirconia (SSZ), Lanthanumstrontium manganite (LSM), Lanthanum Strontium Cobalt Ferrite (LSCF),Lanthanum Strontium Cobaltite (LSC), Lanthanum Strontium GalliumMagnesium Oxide (LSGM), Nickel (Ni), NiO, NiO—YSZ, Cu-CGO, cerium,crofer, steel, lanthanum chromite, doped lanthanum chromite, ferriticsteel, stainless steel, or combinations thereof.

In an embodiment, wherein the particles have a bi-modal particle sizedistribution such that the average particle size in the first mode is atleast 5 times the average particle size in the second mode. In anembodiment, D10 is in the range of from 5 nm to 50 nm or from 5 nm to100 nm or from 5 nm to 200 nm. In an embodiment, D90 is in the range offrom 50 nm to 500 nm or from 50 nm to 1000 nm. In an embodiment, D90/D10is in the range of from 2 to 100 or from 4 to 100 or from 2 to 20 orfrom 2 to 10 or from 4 to 20 or from 4 to 10.

In an embodiment, the method comprises drying the dispersion afterdepositing. In an embodiment, drying comprises heating the dispersionbefore deposition, heating the substrate that is contact with thedispersion, or combination thereof. In an embodiment, drying takes placefor a period in the range of from 1 ms to 1 min or from 1 s to 30 s orfrom 3 s to 10 s. In an embodiment, the dispersion is deposited at atemperature in the range of from 40° C. to 100° C. or from 50° C. to 90°C. or from 60° C. to 80° C. or about 70° C.

In an embodiment, treating comprises the use of electromagneticradiation (EMR), or a furnace, or plasma, or hot fluid, or a heatingelement, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, the EMR comprises UVlight, near ultraviolet light, near infrared light, infrared light,visible light, laser, electron beam, microwave. In an embodiment, theEMR consists of one exposure. In an embodiment, the EMR has an exposurefrequency of 10-4-1000 Hz or 1-1000 Hz or 10-1000 Hz. In an embodiment,the EMR has an exposure distance of no greater than 50 mm. In anembodiment, the EMR has an exposure duration no less than 0.1 ms or 1ms. In an embodiment, the EMR is applied with a capacitor voltage of noless than 100V.

Compact Electrochemical Reactor

The unique manufacturing methods as discussed herein have allowed themaking of compact electrochemical reactors containing ultra-thin layers.In the typical prior art methods, to achieve structural integrity, afuel cell (as an example of an electrochemical reactor) has at least onethick layer, like the anode (an anode-supported fuel cell) or theinterconnect (an interconnect-supported fuel cell). Also, conventionalmanufacturing methods require a pressing or compression step to assemblethe fuel cell components to achieve gas tightness and/or properelectrical contact. As such, the thick layers are necessary not onlybecause traditional methods (like tape casting) typically cannot produceultra-thin layers but also because the layers generally have to be thickto withstand the forces exerted in the pressing and/or compressionsteps. Furthermore, interconnects are often made with fluid dispersingelements in them and as such their thickness cannot be easily reduced inconventionally designed electrochemical reactors. Typically, a unithaving an interconnect, an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte is muchthicker than 1 mm. These thicker layers can result in a greater materialrequirement, higher cost, and lower electrochemical performance. Themanufacturing preferred methods of this disclosure have eliminated theneed for pressing or compression. The preferred manufacturing methods ofthis disclosure have also enabled the making of ultra-thin layers.Moreover, the multiplicity of the layers in an electrochemical reactorprovides sufficient structural integrity for proper operation when theyare made according to the preferred methods of this disclosure.

Herein disclosed is an electrochemical reactor comprising at least oneunit, wherein the unit comprises an interconnect or a bipolar plate, ananode, a cathode, an electrolyte between the anode and the cathode andwherein the unit has a thickness of no greater than 1 mm. In anembodiment, the unit has a thickness of no greater than 900 microns, orno greater than 800 microns, or no greater than 700 microns, or nogreater than 600 microns, or no greater than 500 microns. In anembodiment, the unit has a thickness of no greater than 400 microns, orno greater than 300 microns, or no greater than 200 microns, or nogreater than 100 microns, or no greater than 80 microns, or no greaterthan 60 microns, or no greater than 50 microns.

In an embodiment, the unit is planar. In an embodiment, electricalcurrent flow is perpendicular to the electrolyte in the lateraldirection. In an embodiment, the unit is planar and the electricalcurrent flow is perpendicular to the electrolyte in the lateraldirection. In an embodiment, the reactor comprises solid oxide fuelcell, solid oxide fuel cell stack, electrochemical gas producer,electrochemical compressor, solid state battery, or solid oxide flowbattery. In an embodiment, the electrolyte is an oxide-ion-conductingelectrolyte.

Also discussed herein is a method of making an electrochemical reactorcomprising a) depositing a composition on a substrate to form a slice;b) drying the slice using a non-contact dryer; c) heating the sliceusing electromagnetic radiation (EMR) or conduction or both; wherein thereactor comprises at least one unit, wherein the unit comprises aninterconnect or a bipolar plate, an anode, a cathode, an electrolytebetween the anode and the cathode and wherein the unit has a thicknessof no greater than 1 mm. In an embodiment, the method comprisesrepeating steps a)-c) to produce the electrochemical reactor slice byslice. In an embodiment, the unit is planar or electrical current flowis perpendicular to the electrolyte in the lateral direction or both.

In an embodiment, the method comprises d) measuring the slicetemperature T within time t after the last exposure of the EMR withoutcontacting the slice, wherein t is no greater than 5 seconds, or nogreater than 4 seconds, or no greater than 3 seconds, no greater than 2seconds, or no greater than 1 second. In an embodiment, the methodcomprises e) comparing T with T_(sinter), wherein T_(sinter) is no lessthan 45% of the melting point of the composition if the composition isnon-metallic; or wherein T_(sinter) is no less than 60% of the meltingpoint of the composition if the composition is metallic. In anembodiment, the method comprises e) comparing T with T_(sinter), whereinT_(sinter) is previously determined by correlating the measuredtemperature with microstructure images of the slice, scratch test of theslice, electrochemical performance test of the slice, dilatometrymeasurements of the slice, conductivity measurements of the slice, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, the method comprises heating theslice using EMR or conduction or both in a second stage if T is lessthan 90% of T_(sinter). In an embodiment, the porosity of the materialafter the second stage sintering is less than that after the first stagesintering, or the material has greater densification after the secondstage sintering than after the first stage sintering.

In an embodiment, the unit has a thickness of no greater than 900microns, or no greater than 800 microns, or no greater than 700 microns,or no greater than 600 microns, or no greater than 500 microns, or nogreater than 400 microns, or no greater than 300 microns, or no greaterthan 200 microns, or no greater than 100 microns, or no greater than 80microns, or no greater than 60 microns, or no greater than 50 microns.In an embodiment, the composition comprises either LSCF, LSM, YSZ, CGO,Samaria-doped ceria (SDC), Scandia-stabilized zirconia (SSZ), LSGM, Cu,CuO, Cu₂O, Cu-CGO, Ni, NiO, NiO—YSZ, silver, ferritic steel, stainlesssteel, lanthanum chromite, doped lanthanum chromite, crofer, orcombinations thereof.

In an embodiment, the slice has a thickness of no greater than 1 mm orno greater than 500 microns or no greater than 300 microns or no greaterthan 100 microns or no greater than 50 microns. In an embodiment, thecomposition comprises particles having a particle size distributioncomprising D10 and D90, wherein 10% of the particles have a diameter nogreater than D10 and 90% of the particles have a diameter no greaterthan D90, wherein D90/D10 is in the range of from 1.5 to 100. In anembodiment, the particle size distribution is a number distributiondetermined by dynamic light scattering or transmission electronmicroscopy (TEM). In an embodiment, D10 is in the range of from 5 nm to50 nm or from 5 nm to 100 nm or from 5 nm to 200 nm, or D90 is in therange of from 50 nm to 500 nm or from 50 nm to 1000 nm, or whereinD90/D10 is in the range of from 2 to 100 or from 4 to 100 or from 2 to20 or from 2 to 10 or from 4 to 20 or from 4 to 10. In an embodiment,the particles have a diameter in the range of from 1 nm to 1000 nm,wherein D10 is in the range of from 1 nm to 10 nm and D90 is in therange of from 50 nm to 500 nm.

In an embodiment, drying takes place for a period in the range of nogreater than 5 minutes, or no greater than 3 minutes, or no greater than1 minute, or from 1 s to 30 s, or from 3 s to 10 s. In an embodiment,said non-contact dryer comprises infrared heater, hot air blower,ultraviolet light source, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, theEMR is provided by a xenon lamp. In an embodiment, the EMR comprises UVlight, near ultraviolet light, near infrared light, infrared light,visible light, laser, electron beam. In an embodiment, the EMR has aburst frequency of 10⁻⁴-1000 Hz or 1-1000 Hz or 10-1000 Hz. In anembodiment, the EMR has an exposure distance of no greater than 50 mm.In an embodiment, the EMR has an exposure duration no less than 0.1 msor 1 ms. In an embodiment, the EMR is applied with a capacitor voltageof no less than 100V.

Further disclosed herein is a system for making an electrochemicalreactor comprising at least one deposition nozzle configured to eject amaterial; an electromagnetic radiation (EMR) source; a receiverconfigured to receive deposition of the material and to allow thematerial to receive the electromagnetic radiation and configured toapply conductive heat to the material. In an embodiment, the EMR sourceis a xenon lamp. In an embodiment, the system comprises a non-contactdryer configured to dry the material on the receiver before the materialreceives the electromagnetic radiation. In an embodiment, saidnon-contact dryer comprises infrared heater, hot air blower, ultravioletlight source, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, the dryer isconfigured to dry the material for a period in the range of no greaterthan 5 minutes, or no greater than 3 minutes, or no greater than 1minute, or no greater than 45 s, or from 1 s to 30 s, or from 3 s to 10s.

In an embodiment, the system comprises a non-contact temperature sensorconfigured to measure the temperature of the material. In an embodiment,the non-contact temperature sensor comprises an infrared sensor, aninfrared camera, a pyrometer, a bolometer, or combinations thereof. Inan embodiment, the non-contact temperature sensor is configured tomeasure the material temperature within time t after the last exposureof the EMR, wherein t is no greater than 5 seconds, or no greater than 4seconds, or no greater than 3 seconds, or no greater than 2 seconds, orno greater than 1 second.

In an embodiment, the system comprises a computer readable mediumcontaining instructions that, when executed by a processer, cause theprocessor to direct the at least one deposition nozzle to deposit thematerial on the receiver; or to direct the non-contact dryer to dry thematerial; or to direct the EMR source to heat the material or to directthe receiver to conductively heat the material or both; or to direct thetemperature sensor to measure the material temperature within time tafter the last exposure of the EMR; or combinations thereof. In anembodiment, t is no greater than 5 seconds, or no greater than 4seconds, or no greater than 3 seconds, or no greater than 2 seconds, orno greater than 1 second. In an embodiment, the instructions cause theprocessor to compare the measured material temperature T withT_(sinter). In an embodiment, T_(sinter) is previously determined bycorrelating the measured temperature with microstructure images of thematerial, scratch adhesion test of the material, scratch hardness testof the material, electrochemical performance test of the material,dilatometry measurements of the material, conductivity measurements ofthe material, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, T_(sinter) isno less than 45% of the melting point of the material if the material isnon-metallic; or wherein T_(sinter) is no less than 60% of the meltingpoint of the material if the material is metallic.

In an embodiment, the instructions cause the processor to direct the EMRsource to heat the material or to direct the receiver to conductivelyheat the material or both in a second stage if T is less than 90% ofT_(sinter). In an embodiment, the EMR in the first stage or in thesecond stage is delivered in one exposure, or no greater than 10exposures, or no greater than 100 exposures, or no greater than 1000exposures, or no greater than 10,000 exposures. In an embodiment, theEMR in the second stage is used at the same voltage, number ofexposures, exposure duration, burst frequency, EMR spectrum, exposuredistance, EMR energy density, or combinations thereof as the firststage.

Herein disclosed is a fuel cell comprising an anode no greater than 1 mmor 500 microns or 300 microns or 100 microns or 50 microns or no greaterthan 25 microns in thickness, a cathode no greater than 1 mm or 500microns or 300 microns or 100 microns or 50 microns or no greater than25 microns in thickness, and an electrolyte no greater than 1 mm or 500microns or 300 microns or 100 microns or 50 microns or 30 microns inthickness. In an embodiment, the fuel cell comprises an interconnecthaving a thickness of no less than 50 microns. In some cases, a fuelcell comprises an anode no greater than 25 microns in thickness, acathode no greater than 25 microns in thickness, and an electrolyte nogreater than 10 microns or 5 microns in thickness. In an embodiment, thefuel cell comprises an interconnect having a thickness of no less than50 microns. In an embodiment, the interconnect has a thickness of from50 microns to 5 cm.

In a preferred embodiment, a fuel cell comprises an anode no greaterthan 100 microns in thickness, a cathode no greater than 100 microns inthickness, an electrolyte no greater than 20 microns in thickness, andan interconnect no greater than 30 microns in thickness. In a morepreferred embodiment, a fuel cell comprises an anode no greater than 50microns in thickness, a cathode no greater than 50 microns in thickness,an electrolyte no greater than 10 microns in thickness, and aninterconnect no greater than 25 microns in thickness. In an embodiment,the interconnect has a thickness in the range of from 1 micron to 20microns.

In a preferred embodiment, the fuel cell comprises a barrier layerbetween the anode and the electrolyte, or a barrier layer between thecathode and the electrolyte, or both barrier layers. In some cases, thebarrier layers are the interconnects. In such cases, the reactants aredirectly injected into the anode and the cathode.

In an embodiment, the cathode has a thickness of no greater than 15microns, or no greater than 10 microns, or no greater than 5 microns. Inan embodiment, the anode has a thickness of no greater than 15 microns,or no greater than 10 microns, or no greater than 5 microns. In anembodiment, the electrolyte has a thickness of no greater than 5microns, or no greater than 2 microns, or no greater than 1 micron, orno greater than 0.5 micron. In an embodiment, the interconnect is madeof a material comprising metal, stainless steel, silver, metal alloys,nickel, nickel oxide, ceramics, or graphene. In an embodiment, the fuelcell has a total thickness of no less than 1 micron.

Also discussed herein is a fuel cell stack comprising a multiplicity offuel cells, wherein each fuel cell comprises an anode no greater than 25microns in thickness, a cathode no greater than 25 microns in thickness,an electrolyte no greater than 10 microns in thickness, and aninterconnect having a thickness of from 100 nm to 100 microns. In anembodiment, each fuel cell comprises a barrier layer between the anodeand the electrolyte, or a barrier layer between the cathode and theelectrolyte, or both barrier layers. In an embodiment, the barrierlayers are the interconnects. For example, the interconnect is made ofsilver. For example, the interconnect has a thickness of from 500 nm to1000 nm. In an embodiment, the interconnect is made of a materialcomprising metal, stainless steel, silver, metal alloys, nickel, nickeloxide, ceramics, or graphene.

In an embodiment, the cathode has a thickness of no greater than 15microns, or no greater than 10 microns, or no greater than 5 microns. Inan embodiment, the anode has a thickness of no greater than 15 microns,or no greater than 10 microns, or no greater than 5 microns. In anembodiment, the electrolyte has a thickness of no greater than 5microns, or no greater than 2 microns, or no greater than 1 micron, orno greater than 0.5 micron. In an embodiment, each fuel cell has a totalthickness of no less than 1 micron.

Further discussed herein is a method of making a fuel cell comprising(a) forming an anode no greater than 25 microns in thickness, (b)forming a cathode no greater than 25 microns in thickness, and (c)forming an electrolyte no greater than 10 microns in thickness. In anembodiment, steps (a)-(c) are performed using additive manufacturing. Invarious embodiments, said additive manufacturing employs extrusion,photopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material jetting, binderjetting, directed energy deposition, lamination.

In an embodiment, the method comprises assembling the anode, thecathode, and the electrolyte using additive manufacturing. In anembodiment, the method comprises forming an interconnect and assemblingthe interconnect with the anode, the cathode, and the electrolyte.

In an embodiment, the method comprises making at least one barrierlayer. In an embodiment, said at least one barrier layer is used betweenthe electrolyte and the cathode or between the electrolyte and the anodeor both. In an embodiment, said at least one barrier layer is also aninterconnect.

In an embodiment, the method comprises heating the fuel cell such thatshrinkage rates of the anode, the cathode, and the electrolyte arematched. In an embodiment, such heating takes place for no greater than30 minutes, preferably no greater than 30 seconds, and most preferablyno greater than 30 milliseconds. In this disclosure, matching shrinkagerates during heating is discussed in details below (Matching SRTs). Whena fuel cell comprises a first composition and a second composition,wherein the first composition has a first shrinkage rate and the secondcomposition has a second shrinkage rate, the heating described in thisdisclosure preferably takes place such that the difference between thefirst shrinkage rate and the second shrinkage rate is no greater than75% of the first shrinkage rate.

In a preferred embodiment, the heating employs electromagnetic radiation(EMR). In various embodiments, EMR comprises UV light, near ultravioletlight, near infrared light, infrared light, visible light, laser,electron beam. Preferably, heating is performed in situ.

Also disclosed herein is a method of making a fuel cell stack comprisinga multiplicity of fuel cells, the method comprising (a) forming an anodeno greater than 25 microns in thickness in each fuel cell, (b) forming acathode no greater than 25 microns in thickness in each fuel cell, (c)forming an electrolyte no greater than 10 microns in thickness in eachfuel cell, and (d) producing an interconnect having a thickness of from100 nm to 100 microns in each fuel cell.

In an embodiment, steps (a)-(d) are performed using additivemanufacturing. In various embodiments, said additive manufacturingemploys extrusion, photopolymerization, powder bed fusion, materialjetting, binder jetting, directed energy deposition, and/or lamination.

In an embodiment, the method comprises assembling the anode, thecathode, the electrolyte, and the interconnect using additivemanufacturing. In an embodiment, the method comprises making at leastone barrier layer in each fuel cell. In an embodiment, said at least onebarrier layer is used between the electrolyte and the cathode or betweenthe electrolyte and the anode or both. In an embodiment, said at leastone barrier layer is the interconnect.

In an embodiment, the method comprises heating each fuel cell such thatshrinkage rates of the anode, the cathode, and the electrolyte arematched. In an embodiment, such heating takes place for no greater than30 minutes, or no greater than 30 seconds, or no greater than 30milliseconds. In an embodiment, said heating comprises electromagneticradiation (EMR). In various embodiments, EMR comprises UV light, nearultraviolet light, near infrared light, infrared light, visible light,laser, electron beam. In an embodiment, heating is performed in situ.

In an embodiment, the method comprises heating the entire fuel cellstack such that shrinkage rates of the anode, the cathode, and theelectrolyte are matched. In an embodiment, such heating takes place forno greater than 30 minutes, or no greater than 30 seconds, or no greaterthan 30 milliseconds.

The detailed discussion may take the production of solid oxide fuelcells (SOFCs) as an example. As one in the art recognizes, themethodology and the manufacturing process are applicable to all fuelcell types. As such, the production of all fuel cell types is within thescope of this disclosure.

Multi-Stage Sintering

Sintering using electromagnetic radiation (e.g., photonic sintering) isknown to be a self-damping process in the art, i.e., initial photonicsintering causes densification of the material being sintered but theprogression of material densification reduces the effect of subsequentphotonic heating, often before full density is reached. As such,conventional understanding suggests that multi-stage sintering using EMRhas no added benefit. However, contrary to traditional wisdom, we haveunexpectedly discovered multi-stage sintering methods using EMR toachieve further densification of materials or even full densification,which was thought not achievable. Herein we discuss a method ofsintering a material comprising heating the material usingelectromagnetic radiation (EMR) in a first stage at an exposurefrequency off Hz and causing at least a portion of the material tosinter; pausing the EMR and allowing the material to cool down for atime t, wherein t is no less than 50/f; heating the material using EMRin a second stage and causing additional sintering of the material. Inan embodiment, t is no less than 100/f, or no less than 250/f, or noless than 500/f, or no less than 1000/f, or no less than 2000/f. In anembodiment, t is no greater than 10 minutes, or no greater than 5minutes, or no greater than 2 minutes, or no greater than 1 minute, orno greater than 30 seconds.

In an embodiment, the EMR in the second stage is delivered in oneexposure. In an embodiment, the EMR in the second stage is used at thesame voltage, number of exposures, exposure duration, exposurefrequency, EMR spectrum, exposure distance, EMR energy density, orcombinations thereof as the first stage. In an embodiment, the EMRcomprises either UV light, near ultraviolet light, near infrared light,infrared light, visible light, laser, electron beam, or microwave. In anembodiment, the EMR is delivered in no greater than 10 exposures, or nogreater than 100 exposures, or no greater than 1000 exposures, or nogreater than 10,000 exposures.

In an embodiment, the EMR has an exposure frequency of 10⁻⁴-1000 Hz or1-1000 Hz or 10-1000 Hz. In an embodiment, the EMR has an exposuredistance of no greater than 50 mm. In an embodiment, the EMR has anexposure duration no less than 0.1 ms or 1 ms. In an embodiment, the EMRis applied with a capacitor voltage of no less than 100V.

In an embodiment, the material comprises either LSCF, LSM, YSZ, CGO,Samaria-doped ceria (SDC), Scandia-stabilized zirconia (SSZ), LSGM,Cu-CGO, NiO—YSZ, silver, ferric steel, stainless steel, lanthanumchromite, doped lanthanum chromite, crofer, or combinations thereof. Inan embodiment, the material comprises particles having a particle sizedistribution comprising D10 and D90, wherein 10% of the particles have adiameter no greater than D10 and 90% of the particles have a diameter nogreater than D90, wherein D90/D10 is in the range of from 1.5 to 100. Inan embodiment, the particle size distribution is a number distributiondetermined by dynamic light scattering or determined by TEM. In anembodiment, D10 is in the range of from 5 nm to 50 nm or from 5 nm to100 nm or from 5 nm to 200 nm, or D90 is in the range of from 50 nm to500 nm or from 50 nm to 1000 nm, or wherein D90/D10 is in the range offrom 2 to 100 or from 4 to 100 or from 2 to 20 or from 2 to 10 or from 4to 20 or from 4 to 10. In an embodiment, the particles have a diameterin the range of from 1 nm to 1000 nm, wherein D10 is in the range offrom 1 nm to 10 nm and D90 is in the range of from 50 nm to 500 nm. Inan embodiment, the particles have a particle size distributioncomprising D50, wherein 50% of the particles have a diameter no greaterthan D50, wherein D50 is no greater than 100 nm. In various embodiments,D50 is no greater than 50 nm, or no greater than 30 nm, or no greaterthan 20 nm, or no greater than 10 nm, or no greater than 5 nm.

In an embodiment, the material has a thickness of no greater than 1 mmor no greater than 500 microns or no greater than 300 microns or nogreater than 100 microns or no greater than 50 microns. In anembodiment, the porosity of the material after the second stagesintering is less than that after the first stage sintering. In anembodiment, the degree of sintering after the second stage is greaterthan the degree of sintering after the first stage. In an embodiment,the material has greater densification after the second stage sinteringthan after the first stage sintering.

Also discussed herein is a method of sintering a material comprisingheating the material using electromagnetic radiation (EMR) in a firststage with one exposure and causing at least a portion of the materialto sinter; pausing the EMR and allowing the material to cool down for atime t, wherein t is no less than 1 second; heating the material usingEMR in a second stage with one exposure or multiple exposures andcausing additional sintering of the material. In an embodiment, t is noless than 2 seconds, or no less than 5 seconds, or no less than 8seconds, or no less than 10 seconds, or no less than 15 seconds. In anembodiment, t is no greater than 10 minutes, or no greater than 5minutes, or no greater than 2 minutes, or no greater than 1 minute, orno greater than 30 seconds.

Temperature Guided Sintering

Material sintering is a very complex process that depends on variousmaterial properties and the resulting microstructures that are to beachieved. For example, sintering using electromagnetic radiation (e.g.,photonic sintering) is known to be a self-damping process in the art,i.e., initial photonic sintering causes densification of the materialbeing sintered but the progression of material densification reduces theeffect of subsequent photonic heating, often before full density isreached. As such, conventional understanding suggests that multi-stagesintering using EMR has no added benefit. However, contrary totraditional wisdom, we have unexpectedly discovered multi-stagesintering methods using EMR to achieve further densification ofmaterials or even full densification, which was thought not achievable.In addition, photonic sintering of ceramic materials is not generallyconsidered possible because of the high energy input required to sinterceramics. Furthermore, we have discovered that non-contact temperaturemonitoring after EMR sintering within a certain time limit providesindication regarding whether some sintering has taken place in amaterial.

Referring to FIG. 6, 606 represents a non-contact dryer, e.g., aninfrared lamp or an infrared heater; 607 represents a non-contacttemperature sensor, e.g., an infrared temperature sensor or an infraredcamera. Herein disclosed is a method of sintering a material comprisingheating the material using electromagnetic radiation (EMR) or conductionor both in a first stage; measuring the material temperature T withintime t after the last exposure of the EMR without contacting thematerial, wherein t is no greater than 5 seconds; comparing T withT_(sinter). In an embodiment, T_(sinter) is no less than 45% of themelting point of the material if the material is non-metallic, orwherein T_(sinter) is no less than 60% of the melting point of thematerial if the material is metallic. In an embodiment, T_(sinter) ispreviously determined by correlating the measured temperature withmicrostructure images of the material, scratch adhesion test of thematerial, scratch hardness test of the material, electrochemicalperformance test of the material, dilatometry measurements of thematerial, conductivity measurements of the material, or combinationsthereof.

In an embodiment, the EMR comprises either UV light, near ultravioletlight, near infrared light, infrared light, visible light, laser,electron beam, or microwave. In an embodiment, the EMR is provided by axenon lamp. In an embodiment, the EMR has a burst frequency of 10⁻⁴-1000Hz or 1-1000 Hz or 10-1000 Hz. In an embodiment, the EMR has an exposuredistance of no greater than 50 mm. In an embodiment, the EMR has anexposure duration no less than 0.1 ms or 1 ms. In an embodiment, the EMRis applied with a capacitor voltage of no less than 100V. In anembodiment, t is no greater than 4 seconds, or no greater than 3seconds, or no greater than 2 seconds, or no greater than 1 second. Inan embodiment, measuring the material temperature T comprises using aninfrared sensor, an infrared camera, a pyrometer, a bolometer, orcombinations thereof.

In an embodiment, the method comprises heating the material using EMR orconduction or both in a second stage if T is less than 90% ofT_(sinter). In an embodiment, the EMR in the first stage or in thesecond stage is delivered in one exposure, or no greater than 10exposures, or no greater than 100 exposures, or no greater than 1000exposures, or no greater than 10,000 exposures. In an embodiment, theEMR in the second stage is used at the same voltage, number ofexposures, exposure duration, burst frequency, EMR spectrum, exposuredistance, EMR energy density, or combinations thereof as the firststage. In an embodiment, the porosity of the material after the secondstage sintering is less than that after the first stage sintering. In anembodiment, the material has greater densification after the secondstage sintering than after the first stage sintering.

In an embodiment, the material comprises either LSCF, LSM, YSZ, CGO,Samaria-doped ceria (SDC), Scandia-stabilized zirconia (SSZ), LSGM, Cu,CuO, Cu₂O, Cu-CGO, Ni, NiO, NiO—YSZ, silver, ferritic steel, stainlesssteel, lanthanum chromite, doped lanthanum chromite, crofer, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, the material comprises particleshaving a particle size distribution comprising D10 and D90, wherein 10%of the particles have a diameter no greater than D10 and 90% of theparticles have a diameter no greater than D90, wherein D90/D10 is in therange of from 1.5 to 100. In an embodiment, the particle sizedistribution is a number distribution determined by dynamic lightscattering or TEM. In an embodiment, D10 is in the range of from 5 nm to50 nm or from 5 nm to 100 nm or from 5 nm to 200 nm, or D90 is in therange of from 50 nm to 500 nm or from 50 nm to 1000 nm, or whereinD90/D10 is in the range of from 2 to 100 or from 4 to 100 or from 2 to20 or from 2 to 10 or from 4 to 20 or from 4 to 10. In an embodiment,the particles have a diameter in the range of from 1 nm to 1000 nm,wherein D10 is in the range of from 1 nm to 10 nm and D90 is in therange of from 50 nm to 500 nm. In an embodiment, the particles have aparticle size distribution comprising D50, wherein 50% of the particleshave a diameter no greater than D50, wherein D50 is no greater than 100nm. In various embodiments, D50 is no greater than 50 nm, or no greaterthan 30 nm, or no greater than 20 nm, or no greater than 10 nm, or nogreater than 5 nm.

In an embodiment, the material has a thickness of no greater than 1 mmor no greater than 500 microns or no greater than 300 microns or nogreater than 100 microns or no greater than 50 microns.

Further disclosed herein is a system for sintering a material comprisingan electromagnetic radiation (EMR) source; a receiver configured tocontain the material and allow the material to receive theelectromagnetic radiation and configured to apply conductive heat to thematerial; a non-contact temperature sensor configured to measure thetemperature of the material. In an embodiment, the EMR source is a xenonlamp. In an embodiment, the non-contact temperature sensor comprises aninfrared sensor, an infrared camera, a pyrometer, a bolometer, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, the non-contact temperaturesensor is configured to measure the material temperature within time tafter the last exposure of the EMR, wherein t is no greater than 5seconds.

In an embodiment, the system comprises a computer readable mediumcontaining instructions that, when executed by a processer, cause theprocessor to compare the measured material temperature T withT_(sinter). In an embodiment, T_(sinter) is previously determined bycorrelating the measured temperature with microstructure images of thematerial, scratch adhesion test of the material, scratch hardness testof the material, electrochemical performance test of the material,dilatometry measurements of the material, conductivity measurements ofthe material, or combinations thereof. As is known in the art,dilatometry uses an instrument to measure volume changes caused by aphysical or chemical process. Preferably, a dilatometry measurement oftemperature in this case will make use of noncontact method, such aswith an optical or laser-based measurement.

In an embodiment, T_(sinter) is no less than 45% of the melting point ofthe material if the material is non-metallic; or wherein T_(sinter) isno less than 60% of the melting point of the material if the material ismetallic. In an embodiment, the instructions cause the processor todirect the EMR source to heat the material or to direct the receiver toconductively heat the material or both in a second stage if T is lessthan 90% of T_(sinter). In an embodiment, the instructions cause theprocessor to direct the temperature sensor to measure the materialtemperature within time t after the last exposure of the EMR.

In an embodiment, t is no greater than 4 seconds, or no greater than 3seconds, or no greater than 2 seconds, or no greater than 1 second. Inan embodiment, the system comprises at least one deposition nozzleconfigured to deposit the material on the receiver. In an embodiment,the system comprises a non-contact dryer configured to dry the materialon the receiver before the material receives the electromagneticradiation. In an embodiment, the non-contact dryer comprises infraredheater, hot air blower, ultraviolet (UV) light source, or combinationsthereof. In some cases, the UV light source initiates reactions (e.g.,polymerization reactions) that are exothermic or endothermic. Theexothermic or endothermic reactions in turn cause a drying effect of thematerial. In an embodiment, the dryer is configured to dry the materialfor a period in the range of from 1 ms to 1 min or from 1 s to 30 s orfrom 3 s to 10 s.

In an embodiment, the instructions cause the processor to direct the atleast one deposition nozzle to deposit the material on the receiver; todirect the non-contact dryer to dry the material; to direct the EMRsource to heat the material or to direct the receiver to conductivelyheat the material or both; and to direct the temperature sensor tomeasure the material temperature within time t after the last exposureof the EMR. In an embodiment, the instructions cause the processor tocompare the measured material temperature T with T_(sinter).

Further discussed herein is a method of manufacturing comprising a)depositing a composition on a substrate to form a slice; b) drying theslice for no more than 1 minute; c) heating the slice usingelectromagnetic radiation (EMR) or conduction or both; and d) measuringthe slice temperature T within time t after the last exposure of the EMRwithout contacting the slice, wherein t is no greater than 5 seconds. Inan embodiment, the EMR is provided by a xenon lamp. In an embodiment,the EMR comprises UV light, near ultraviolet light, near infrared light,infrared light, visible light, laser, electron beam.

In an embodiment, the method comprises repeating steps a)-d) to producean object slice by slice. In an embodiment, said object comprises acatalyst, a catalyst support, a catalyst composite, an anode, a cathode,an electrolyte, an electrode, an interconnect, a seal, a fuel cell, anelectrochemical gas producer, an electrolyser, an electrochemicalcompressor, a reactor, a heat exchanger, a vessel, or combinationsthereof.

In an embodiment, the method comprises e) comparing T with T_(sinter) todetermine if at least a portion of the slice is sintered. In anembodiment, at least a portion of the slice is sintered if T is no lessthan 90% of T_(sinter). In an embodiment, T_(sinter) is previouslydetermined by correlating the measured temperature with microstructureimages of the slice, scratch test of the slice, electrochemicalperformance test of the slice, dilatometry measurements of the slice,conductivity measurements of the slice, or combinations thereof. In anembodiment, T_(sinter) is no less than 45% of the melting point of thecomposition if the composition is non-metallic; or wherein T_(sinter) isno less than 60% of the melting point of the composition if thecomposition is metallic. In an embodiment, the method comprises heatingthe slice using EMR or conduction or both in a second stage if T is lessthan 90% of T_(sinter). In an embodiment, t is no greater than 4seconds, or no greater than 3 seconds, no greater than 2 seconds, or nogreater than 1 second.

In an embodiment, the composition comprises either LSCF, LSM, YSZ, CGO,Samaria-doped ceria (SDC), Scandia-stabilized zirconia (SSZ), LSGM, Cu,CuO, Cu₂O, Cu-CGO, Ni, NiO, NiO—YSZ, silver, ferritic steel, stainlesssteel, lanthanum chromite, doped lanthanum chromite, crofer, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, the composition comprisesparticles having a particle size distribution comprising D10 and D90,wherein 10% of the particles have a diameter no greater than D10 and 90%of the particles have a diameter no greater than D90, wherein D90/D10 isin the range of from 1.5 to 100. In an embodiment, the slice has athickness of no greater than 1 mm or no greater than 500 microns or nogreater than 300 microns or no greater than 100 microns or no greaterthan 50 microns.

In an embodiment, drying takes place for a period in the range of from 1s to 30 s or from 3 s to 10 s. In an embodiment, drying is performed bya non-contact dryer. In an embodiment, said non-contact dryer comprisesinfrared heater, hot air blower, ultraviolet light source, orcombinations thereof. In some cases, the UV light source initiatesreactions (e.g., polymerization reactions) that are exothermic orendothermic. The exothermic or endothermic reactions in turn cause adrying effect of the material.

Integrated Quality Control

The manufacturing system and method of this disclosure compriseintegrated quality control. After a slice is deposited orheated/sintered or both, a property of the slice is measured. Asillustrated in FIG. 13A, 1301 represents deposition, 1302 representsheating or sintering, 1303 represents measuring, and 1304 representscomparing. In various embodiments, the measurement is performed usingone or combinations of the following: photography, microscopy,radiography, ellipsometry, spectroscopy, structured-light 3D scanning,3D laser scanning, multi-spectral imaging, infrared imaging,energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and energy-dispersive X-rayanalysis. Radiography includes any imaging technique using ionizingradiation or non-ionizing radiation, such as X-ray, gamma ray, alpharay, beta ray. Ellipsometry is an optical method to evaluate refractiveindex or dielectric properties of thin substrates. For example,ellipsometry measures the change of polarization upon reflection ortransmission and compares it to a baseline model or calibration model.Structured-light 3D scanning is a 3D scanning technique to measure the3D shape of an object using projected light patterns and a network ofcameras.

Multispectral image captures image data within particular wavelengthranges in the electromagnetic spectrum, including light from the visiblerange to invisible ranges, such as infrared and ultra-violet (UV). Thewavelengths of the electromagnetic waves are sometimes separated, e.g.,by filters or by certain instruments that are sensitive to specificwavelengths. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy or energy-dispersiveX-ray analysis is a technique that analyzes chemical composition of asample. The sample is excited with X-ray, interacts with the X-ray, andemits a certain spectrum according to its compositional elements. Imageanalysis, either manually or by image analysis software, is included inthe integrated quality control. Reconstruction of images is alsoincluded in the integrated quality control. In some embodiments, aproperty of the slice is measured by exposing the slice to an EMR andmeasuring transmittance, reflectance, absorbance, or combinationsthereof of the EMR that interacts with the slice during exposure.Referring to FIG. 6 again, 605 represents a measuring modality thatprovides information (e.g., surface properties) regarding the depositedslice. For example, 605 is a camera or a microscope or a laser scanner.

In this disclosure, a slice having a continuous surface extending as awhole in the lateral direction means that the slice contains at leastone surface that is continuous and as a whole the at least one surfaceis spreading in the lateral direction. As shown in FIG. 13B, the topline represents a continuous surface extending in the lateral directionas a whole, which surface contains local portions or sections notaligned in the lateral direction. The bottom two lines in FIG. 13Brepresent surfaces that are extending as a whole in the lateraldirection but not continuous. For example, if the slice has a crackacross its thickness or if the slice has a pinhole through itsthickness, then the slice does not have a continuous surface extendingas a whole in the lateral direction. A slice having a consistentcomposition means that the composition across the slice (e.g., in thelateral direction or in the thickness direction) is substantially thesame. For example, if a slice has mainly NiO—YSZ with a non-negligiblevolume in the slice containing silver, then the slice does not have aconsistent composition. A non-negligible volume is considered to existwhen such a volume interferes with the intended function of the slice.

Herein disclosed is a method of forming an object comprising depositinga composition on a substrate to form a slice; heating the slice usingelectromagnetic radiation (EMR); measuring a property of the slice;comparing the measured property with preset criteria; depositing thesame composition on the slice to form another slice if the measuredproperty does not meet the preset criteria or depositing anothercomposition on the slice to form another slice if the measured propertymeets the preset criteria. In an embodiment, said another composition isthe same as the composition. In an embodiment, heating the slice usingEMR takes place in situ.

In an embodiment, said measuring takes place within 60 minutes or within30 minutes or within 10 minutes or within 1 minute after heating. In anembodiment, said comparing takes place within 60 minutes or within 30minutes or within 10 minutes or within 1 minute after measuring. In anembodiment, said measuring comprises the use of photography, microscopy,radiography, ellipsometry, spectroscopy, structured-light 3D scanning,3D laser scanning, multi-spectral imaging, infrared imaging,energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis,or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, said measuring a property ofthe slice comprises measuring transmittance, reflectance, absorbance, orcombinations thereof of an EMR that interacts with the slice duringmeasuring.

In an embodiment, the preset criteria comprise the slice having acontinuous surface extending as a whole in the lateral direction. In anembodiment, the preset criteria comprise the slice having a consistentcomposition. In an embodiment, the EMR has a peak wavelength rangingfrom 10 to 1500 nm and the EMR has a minimum energy density of 0.1Joule/cm2, wherein the peak wavelength is on the basis of relativeirradiance with respect to wavelength. In an embodiment, the EMRcomprises UV light, near ultraviolet light, near infrared light,infrared light, visible light, laser, electron beam, microwave. In anembodiment, said object comprises a catalyst, a catalyst support, acatalyst composite, an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte, an electrode,an interconnect, a seal, a fuel cell, an electrochemical gas producer,an electrolyser, an electrochemical compressor, a reactor, a heatexchanger, a vessel, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, the EMRhas a peak wavelength no less than 200 nm, or 250 nm, or 300 nm, or 400nm, or 500 nm.

In an embodiment, the composition comprises carbon, nickel oxide,nickel, silver, copper, CGO, NiO—YSZ, YSZ, LSCF, LSM, ferritic steels,or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, the composition comprisescarbon in the form of graphite, graphene, carbon nanoparticles, nanodiamonds, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, said depositingcomprises material jetting, binder jetting, inkjet printing, aerosoljetting, or aerosol jet printing, vat photopolymerization, powder bedfusion, material extrusion, directed energy deposition, sheetlamination, ultrasonic inkjet printing, or combinations thereof. In anembodiment, the depositing is accomplished by inkjet printing. In anembodiment, the object does not change location between depositing andheating. In an embodiment, the EMR has a power output of no less than 1W, or 10 W, or 100 W, or 1000 W.

Also discussed herein is a system comprising a deposition receiver, atleast one deposition nozzle configured to deposit a composition to thedeposition receiver and form a slice, an electromagnetic radiation (EMR)source configured to expose the slice to EMR, and a measuring unitconfigured to measure a property of the slice. In an embodiment, thedeposition receiver is configured to receive EMR exposure and depositionat the same location. In an embodiment, said measuring unit isconfigured to utilize photography, microscopy, radiography,ellipsometry, spectroscopy, structured-light 3D scanning, 3D laserscanning, multi-spectral imaging, infrared imaging, energy-dispersiveX-ray spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, or combinationsthereof. In an embodiment, said measuring unit is configured to measuretransmittance, reflectance, absorbance, or combinations thereof of anEMR that interacts with the slice during measuring.

In an embodiment, the system comprises a computer readable mediumcontaining instructions when executed by a processor to compare themeasured property of the slice with preset criteria and to cause thedeposition nozzle to deposit the same composition on the slice to formanother slice if the measured property does not meet the preset criteriaor to deposit another composition on the slice to form another slice ifthe measured property meets the preset criteria. In an embodiment, saidanother composition is the same as the composition. In an embodiment,the preset criteria comprise the slice having a continuous surfaceextending as a whole in the lateral direction. In an embodiment, thepreset criteria comprise the slice having a consistent composition.

Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is an electrochemical apparatus that converts the chemicalenergy from a fuel into electricity through an electrochemical reaction.As mentioned above, there are many types of fuel cells, e.g.,proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), solid oxide fuel cells(SOFCs). A fuel cell typically comprises an anode, a cathode, anelectrolyte, an interconnect, optionally a barrier layer and/oroptionally a catalyst. Both the anode and the cathode are electrodes.The listings of material for the electrodes, the electrolyte, and theinterconnect in a fuel cell are applicable in some cases to the EC gasproducer and the EC compressor. These listings are only examples and notlimiting. Furthermore, the designations of anode material and cathodematerial are also not limiting because the function of the materialduring operation (e.g., whether it is oxidizing or reducing) determineswhether the material is used as an anode or a cathode.

FIGS. 1-5 illustrate various embodiments of the components in a fuelcell or a fuel cell stack. In these embodiments, the anode, cathode,electrolyte, and interconnect are cuboids or rectangular prisms.

Referring to FIG. 1, 101 schematically represents the anode; 102represents the cathode; and 103 represents the electrolyte.

Referring to FIG. 2, 201 schematically represents the anode; 202represents the cathode; 203 represents the electrolyte; and 204represents the barrier layers.

Referring to FIG. 3, 301 schematically represents the anode; 302represents the cathode; 303 represents the electrolyte; 304 representsthe barrier layers; and 305 represents the catalyst.

Referring to FIG. 4, 401 schematically represents the anode; 402represents the cathode; 403 represents the electrolyte; 404 representsthen barrier layer; 405 represents the catalyst; and 406 represents theinterconnect.

FIG. 5 depicts two fuel cells in a fuel cell stack. Item 501schematically represents the anode; 502 represents the cathode; 503represents the electrolyte; 504 represents the barrier layers; 505represents the catalyst; and 506 represents the interconnect. Two fuelcell repeat units or two fuel cells form a stack as illustrated. As isseen, on one side the interconnect is in contact with the largestsurface of the cathode of the top fuel cell (or fuel cell repeat unit)and on the opposite side the interconnect is in contact with the largestsurface of the catalyst (optional) or the anode of the bottom fuel cell(or fuel cell repeat unit). These repeat units or fuel cells areconnected in parallel by being stacked atop one another and sharing aninterconnect in between via direct contact with the interconnect ratherthan via electrical wiring. This kind of configuration is in contrast tosegmented-in-series (SIS) type fuel cells.

Cathode

In an embodiment, the cathode comprises perovskites, such as LSC, LSCF,LSM. In an embodiment, the cathode comprises lanthanum, cobalt,strontium, manganite. In an embodiment, the cathode is porous. In anembodiment, the cathode comprises YSZ, Nitrogen, Nitrogen Boron dopedGraphene, La_(0.6)Sr_(0.4)Co_(0.2)Fe_(0.8)O₃, SrCo_(0.5)Sc_(0.5)O₃,BaFe_(0.75)Ta_(0.2)SO₃, BaFe_(0.875)Re_(0.125)O₃,Ba_(0.5)La_(0.125)Zn_(0.375)NiO₃,Ba_(0.75)Sr_(0.25)Fe_(0.875)Ga_(0.125)O₃, BaFe_(0.125)CO_(0.125),Zr_(0.75)O₃. In an embodiment, the cathode comprises LSCo, LCo, LSF,LSCoF. In an embodiment, the cathode comprises perovskites LaCoO₃,LaFeO₃, LaMnO₃, (La,Sr)MnO₃, LSM-GDC, LSCF-GDC, LSC-GDC. Cathodescontaining LSCF are suitable for intermediate-temperature fuel celloperation.

In an embodiment, the cathode comprises a material selected from thegroup consisting of lanthanum strontium manganite, lanthanum strontiumferrite, and lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite. In an embodiment, thecathode comprises lanthanum strontium manganite.

Anode

In an embodiment, the anode comprises Copper, Nickel-Oxide,Nickel-Oxide-YSZ, NiO-GDC, NiO-SDC, Aluminum doped Zinc Oxide,Molybdenum Oxide, Lanthanum, strontium, chromite, ceria, perovskites(such as, LSCF [La{1-x}Sr{x}Co{1-y}Fe{y}O₃] or LSM [La{1-x}Sr{x}MnO₃],where x is usually 0.15-0.2 and y is 0.7 to 0.8). In an embodiment, theanode comprises SDC or BZCYYb coating or barrier layer to reduce cokingand sulfur poisoning. In an embodiment, the anode is porous. In anembodiment, the anode comprises combination of electrolyte material andelectrochemically active material, combination of electrolyte materialand electrically conductive material.

In an embodiment, the anode comprises nickel and yttria stabilizedzirconia. In an embodiment, the anode is formed by reduction of amaterial comprising nickel oxide and yttria stabilized zirconia. In anembodiment, the anode comprises nickel and gadolinium stabilized ceria.In an embodiment, the anode is formed by reduction of a materialcomprising nickel oxide and gadolinium stabilized ceria.

Electrolyte

In an embodiment, the electrolyte in a fuel cell comprises stabilizedzirconia e.g., YSZ, YSZ-8, Y_(0.16)Zr_(0.84)O₂. In an embodiment, theelectrolyte comprises doped LaGaO₃, e.g., LSGM,La_(0.9)Sr_(0.1)Ga_(0.8)Mg_(0.2)O₃. In an embodiment, the electrolytecomprises doped ceria, e.g., GDC, Gd_(0.2)Ce_(0.8)O₂. In an embodiment,the electrolyte comprises stabilized bismuth oxide e.g., BVCO,Bi2V_(0.9)Cu_(0.1)O_(5.35).

In an embodiment, the electrolyte comprises zirconium oxide, yttriastabilized zirconium oxide (also known as YSZ, YSZ8 (8 mole % YSZ)),ceria, gadolinia, scandia, magnesia, calcia. In an embodiment, theelectrolyte is sufficiently impermeable to prevent significant gastransport and prevent significant electrical conduction; and allow ionconductivity. In an embodiment, the electrolyte comprises doped oxidesuch as cerium oxide, yttrium oxide, bismuth oxide, lead oxide,lanthanum oxide. In an embodiment, the electrolyte comprises perovskite,such as, LaCoFeO₃ or LaCoO₃ or Ce_(0.9)Gd_(0.1)O₂ (GDC) orCe_(0.9)Sm_(0.1)O₂ (SDC, samaria doped ceria) or scandia stabilizedzirconia.

In an embodiment, the electrolyte comprises a material selected from thegroup consisting of zirconia, ceria, and gallia. In an embodiment, thematerial is stabilized with a stabilizing material selected from thegroup consisting of scandium, samarium, gadolinium, and yttrium. In anembodiment, the material comprises yttria stabilized zirconia.

Herein discussed is a method of making an electrolyte comprising (a)formulating a colloidal suspension, wherein the colloidal suspensioncomprises an additive, particles having a range of diameters and a sizedistribution, and a solvent; (b) forming an electrolyte comprising thecolloidal suspension; and (c) heating at least a portion of theelectrolyte; wherein formulating the colloidal suspension is preferablyoptimized by controlling the pH of the colloidal suspension, orconcentration of the binder in the colloidal suspension, or compositionof the binder in the colloidal suspension, or the range of diameters ofthe particles, or maximum diameter of the particles, or median diameterof the particles, or the size distribution of the particles, or boilingpoint of the solvent, or surface tension of the solvent, or compositionof the solvent, or thickness of the minimum dimension of theelectrolyte, or the composition of the particles, or combinationsthereof.

Herein discussed is a method of making a fuel cell comprising (a)obtaining a cathode and an anode; (b) modifying the cathode surface andthe anode surface; (c) formulating a colloidal suspension, wherein thecolloidal suspension comprises an additive, particles having a range ofdiameters and a size distribution, and a solvent; (d) forming anelectrolyte comprising the colloidal suspension between the modifiedanode surface and the modified cathode surface; and (e) heating at leasta portion of the electrolyte; wherein formulating the colloidalsuspension comprises controlling pH of the colloidal suspension, orconcentration of the binder in the colloidal suspension, or compositionof the binder in the colloidal suspension, or the range of diameters ofthe particles, or maximum diameter of the particles, or median diameterof the particles, or the size distribution of the particles, or boilingpoint of the solvent, or surface tension of the solvent, or compositionof the solvent, or thickness of the minimum dimension of theelectrolyte, or the composition of the particles, or combinationsthereof. In various embodiments, the anode and the cathode are obtainedvia any suitable means. In an embodiment, the modified anode surface andthe modified cathode surface have a maximum height profile roughnessthat is less than the average diameter of the particles in the colloidalsuspension. The maximum height profile roughness refers to the maximumdistance between any trough and an adjacent peak as illustrated in FIG.9 . In various embodiments, the anode surface and the cathode surfaceare modified via any suitable means.

Further disclosed herein is a method of making a fuel cell comprising(a) obtaining a cathode and an anode; (b) formulating a colloidalsuspension, wherein the colloidal suspension comprises an additive,particles having a range of diameters and a size distribution, and asolvent; (c) forming an electrolyte comprising the colloidal suspensionbetween the anode and the cathode; and (d) heating at least a portion ofthe electrolyte; wherein formulating the colloidal suspension comprisescontrolling pH of the colloidal suspension, or concentration of thebinder in the colloidal suspension, or composition of the binder in thecolloidal suspension, or the range of diameters of the particles, ormaximum diameter of the particles, or median diameter of the particles,or the size distribution of the particles, or boiling point of thesolvent, or surface tension of the solvent, or composition of thesolvent, or thickness of the minimum dimension of the electrolyte, orthe composition of the particles, or combinations thereof. In variousembodiments, the anode and the cathode are obtained via any suitablemeans. In an embodiment, the anode surface in contact with theelectrolyte and the cathode surface in contact with the electrolyte havea maximum height profile roughness that is less than the averagediameter of the particles in the colloidal suspension.

In an embodiment, the solvent comprises water. In an embodiment, thesolvent comprises an organic component. In an embodiment, the solventcomprises ethanol, butanol, alcohol, terpineol, Diethyl ether1,2-Dimethoxyethane (DME (ethylene glycol dimethyl ether), 1-Propanol(n-propanol, n-propyl alcohol), or butyl alcohol. In an embodiment, thesolvent surface tension is less than half of water's surface tension inair. In an embodiment, the solvent surface tension is less than 30 mN/mat atmospheric conditions.

In an embodiment, the electrolyte is formed adjacent to a firstsubstrate. In an embodiment, the electrolyte is formed between a firstsubstrate and a second substrate. In an embodiment, the first substratehas a maximum height profile roughness that is less than the averagediameter of the particles. In an embodiment, the particles have apacking density greater than 40%, or greater than 50%, or greater than60%. In an embodiment, the particles have a packing density close to therandom close packing (RCP) density.

Random close packing (RCP) is an empirical parameter used tocharacterize the maximum volume fraction of solid objects obtained whenthey are packed randomly. A container is randomly filled with objects,and then the container is shaken or tapped until the objects do notcompact any further, at this point the packing state is RCP. The packingfraction is the volume taken by number of particles in a given space ofvolume. The packing fraction determines the packing density. Forexample, when a solid container is filled with grain, shaking thecontainer will reduce the volume taken up by the objects, thus allowingmore grain to be added to the container. Shaking increases the densityof packed objects. When shaking no longer increases the packing density,a limit is reached and if this limit is reached without obvious packinginto a regular crystal lattice, this is the empirical randomclose-packed density.

In an embodiment, the median particle diameter is between 50 nm and 1000nm, or between 100 nm and 500 nm, or approximately 200 nm. In anembodiment, the first substrate comprises particles having a medianparticle diameter, wherein the median particle diameter of theelectrolyte is no greater than 10 times and no less than 1/10 of themedian particle diameter of the first substrate. In an embodiment, thefirst substrate comprises a particle size distribution that is bimodalhaving a first mode and a second mode, each having a median particlediameter. In an embodiment, the median particle diameter in the firstmode of the first substrate is greater than 2 times, or greater than 5times, or greater than 10 times that of the second mode. In anembodiment, the particle size distribution of the first substrate isadjusted to change the behavior of the first substrate during heating.In an embodiment, the first substrate has a shrinkage that is a functionof heating temperature. In an embodiment, the particles in the colloidalsuspension has a maximum particle diameter and a minimum particlediameter, wherein the maximum particle diameter is less than 2 times, orless than 3 times, or less than 5 times, or less than 10 times theminimum particle diameter. In an embodiment, the minimum dimension ofthe electrolyte is less than 10 microns, or less than 2 microns, or lessthan 1 micron, or less than 500 nm.

In an embodiment, the electrolyte has a gas permeability of no greaterthan 1 millidarcy, preferably no greater than 100 microdarcy, and mostpreferably no greater than 1 microdarcy. Preferably, the electrolyte hasno cracks penetrating through the minimum dimension of the electrolyte.In an embodiment, the boiling point of the solvent is no less than 200°C., or no less than 100° C., or no less than 75° C. In an embodiment,the boiling point of the solvent is no greater than 125° C., or nogreater than 100° C., or no greater than 85° C., no greater than 70° C.In an embodiment, the pH of the colloidal suspension is no less than 7,or no less than 9, or no less than 10.

In an embodiment, the additive comprises polyethylene glycol (PEG),ethyl cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl butyral (PVB),butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), polyalkalyne glycol (PAG). In anembodiment, the additive concentration is no greater than 100 mg/cm3, orno greater than 50 mg/cm3, or no greater than 30 mg/cm3, or no greaterthan 25 mg/cm3.

In an embodiment, the colloidal suspension is milled. In an embodiment,the colloidal suspension is milled using a rotational mill. In anembodiment, the rotational mill is operated at no less than 20 rpm, orno less than 50 rpm, or no less than 100 rpm, or no less than 150 rpm.In an embodiment, the colloidal suspension is milled using zirconiamilling balls or tungsten carbide balls. In an embodiment, the colloidalsuspension is milled for no less than 2 hours, or no less than 4 hours,or no less than 1 day, or no less than 10 days.

In an embodiment, the particle concentration in the colloidal suspensionis no greater than 30 wt %, or no greater than 20 wt %, or no greaterthan 10 wt %. In an embodiment, the particle concentration in thecolloidal suspension is no less than 2 wt %. In an embodiment, theparticle concentration in the colloidal suspension is no greater than 10vol %, or no greater than 5 vol %, or no greater than 3 vol %, or nogreater than 1 vol %. In an embodiment, the particle concentration inthe colloidal suspension is no less than 0.1 vol %.

In an embodiment, the electrolyte is formed using an additivemanufacturing machine (AMM). In an embodiment, the first substrate isformed using an AMM. In an embodiment, said heating comprises the use ofelectromagnetic radiation (EMR). In an embodiment, the EMR comprises UVlight, near ultraviolet light, near infrared light, infrared light,visible light, laser. In an embodiment, the first substrate and theelectrolyte are heated to cause co-sintering. In an embodiment, thefirst substrate, the second substrate, and the electrolyte are heated tocause co-sintering. In an embodiment, the EMR is controlled topreferentially sinter the first substrate over the electrolyte.

In an embodiment, the electrolyte is in compression throughout itsthickness after heating. In an embodiment, the first substrate and thesecond substrate apply compressive stress to the electrolyte afterheating. In an embodiment, the first substrate and the second substrateare anode and cathode of a fuel cell. In an embodiment, the minimumdimension of the electrolyte is between 500 nm and 5 microns. In anembodiment, the minimum dimension of the electrolyte is between 1 micronand 2 microns.

Interconnect

In an embodiment, the interconnect comprises silver, gold, platinum,AIS1441, ferritic stainless steel, stainless steel, Lanthanum, Chromium,Chromium Oxide, Chromite, Cobalt, Cesium, Cr2O₃. In an embodiment, theanode comprises LaCrO₃ coating on Cr2O₃ or NiCo₂O₄ or MnCO₂O₄ coatings.In an embodiment, the interconnect surface is coated with Cobalt and/orCesium. In an embodiment, the interconnect comprises ceramics. In anembodiment, the interconnect comprises Lanthanum Chromite or dopedLanthanum Chromite. In an embodiment, the interconnect is made of amaterial comprising metal, stainless steel, ferritic steel, crofer,lanthanum chromite, silver, metal alloys, nickel, nickel oxide,ceramics, or graphene.

Catalyst

In various embodiments, the fuel cell comprises a catalyst, such as,platinum, palladium, scandia, chromium, cobalt, cesium, CeO₂, nickel,nickel oxide, zine, copper, titantia, ruthenium, rhodiu, MoS2,molybdenum, rhenium, vandia, manganese, magnesium, iron. In variousembodiments, the catalyst promotes methane reforming reactions togenerate hydrogen and carbon monoxide for them to be oxidized in thefuel cell. Very often, the catalyst is part of the anode, especiallynickel anode has inherent methane reforming properties. In anembodiment, the catalyst is between 1%-5%, or 0.1% to 10% by mass. In anembodiment, the catalyst is used on the anode surface or in the anode.In various embodiments, such anode catalysts reduce harmful cokingreactions and carbon deposits. In various embodiments, simple oxideversion of catalysts is used or perovskite. For example, 2% mass CeO₂catalyst is used for methane-powered fuel cells. In various embodiments,the catalyst is dipped or coated on the anode. In various embodiments,the catalyst is made by an additive manufacturing machine (AMM) andincorporated into the fuel cell using the AMM.

Fuel Cell Cartridge

In various embodiments, the fuel cell stack is configured to be madeinto a cartridge form, such as an easily detachable flanged fuel cellcartridge (FCC) design. Referring to FIG. 11A, 1111 represents holes forbolts; 1112 represents a cathode in the FCC; 1113 represents anelectrolyte in the FCC; 1114 represents an anode in the FCC; 1115represents gas channels in the electrodes (anode and cathode); 1116represents an integrated multi-fluid heat exchanger in the FCC. In anembodiment, there is no barrier layer between the cathode and theelectrolyte. Referring to FIG. 11C, 1130 represents holes for bolts inthe FCC; 1131 represents air inlet; 1132 represents air outlet; 1133represents fuel inlet; 1134 represents fuel outlet; 1135 representsbottom of the FCC; 1136 represents top of the FCC. FIG. 11C illustratesthe top view and bottom view of an embodiment of a FCC, in which thelength of the oxidant side of the FCC is shown L_(O), the length of thefuel side of the FCC is shown L_(f), the width of the oxidant (air)entrance is shown W_(O), the width of the fuel entrance is shown W_(f).In FIG. 11C, two fluid exits are shown (Air Outlet 1132 and Fuel Outlet1134). In some cases, the anode exhaust and the cathode exhaust aremixed and extracted through one fluid exit.

Referring to FIG. 11B, 1121 represents electrical bolt isolation; 1125represents anode; 1123 represents seal that seals the anode from airflow; 1126 represents cathode; 1124 represents seal that seals thecathode from fuel flow. FIG. 11B illustrates cross-sectional views ofthe FCC, wherein air flow is sealed from the anode and fuel flow issealed from the cathode. The bolts are isolated electrically with a sealas well. In various embodiments, the seal is a dual functional seal(DFS) comprising YSZ (yttria-stabilized zirconia) or a mixture of 3YSZ(3 mol % Y₂O₃ in ZrO₂) and 8YSZ (8 mol % Y₂O₃ in ZrO₂). In embodiments,the DFS is impermeable to non-ionic substances and electricallyinsulating. In an embodiment, the mass ratio of 3YSZ/8YSZ is in therange of from 10/90 to 90/10. In an embodiment, the mass ratio of3YSZ/8YSZ is about 50/50. In an embodiment, the mass ratio of 3YSZ/8YSZis 100/0 or 0/100.

Herein disclosed is a fuel cell cartridge (FCC) comprising an anode, acathode, an electrolyte, an interconnect, a fuel entrance on a fuel sideof the FCC, an oxidant entrance on an oxidant side of the FCC, at leastone fluid exit, wherein the fuel entrance has a width of W_(f), the fuelside of the FCC has a length of L_(f), the oxidant entrance has a widthof W_(O), the oxidant side of the FCC has a length of L_(O), whereinW_(f)/L_(f) is in the range of 0.1 to 1.0, or 0.1 to 0.9, or 0.2 to 0.9,or 0.5 to 0.9, or 0.5 to 1.0 and W_(O)/L_(O) is in the range of 0.1 to1.0, or 0.1 to 0.9, or 0.2 to 0.9, or 0.5 to 0.9, or 0.5 to 1.0.

In an embodiment, said entrances and exit are on one surface of the FCCand said FCC comprises no protruding fluid passage on said surface. Inan embodiment, said surface is smooth with a maximum elevation change ofno greater than 1 mm, or no greater than 100 microns, or no greater than10 microns.

In an embodiment, the FCC comprises a barrier layer between theelectrolyte and the cathode or between the electrolyte and the anode orboth. In an embodiment, the FCC comprises dual functional seal that isimpermeable to non-ionic substances and electrically insulating. In anembodiment, said dual functional seal comprises YSZ (yttria-stabilizedzirconia) or a mixture of 3YSZ (3 mol % Y₂O₃ in ZrO₂) and 8YSZ (8 mol %Y₂O₃ in ZrO₂).

In an embodiment, said interconnect comprises no fluid dispersingelement and said anode and cathode comprise fluid dispersing components.In an embodiment, said interconnect comprises no fluid dispersingelement and said anode and cathode comprise fluid channels.

In an embodiment, the FCC is detachably fixed to a mating surface andnot soldered nor welded to said mating surface. In an embodiment, theFCC is bolted to or pressed to said mating surface. In an embodiment,said mating surface comprises matching fuel entrance, matching oxidantentrance, and at least one matching fluid exit.

Also discussed herein is a fuel cell cartridge (FCC) comprising ananode, a cathode, an electrolyte, an interconnect, a fuel entrance, anoxidant entrance, at least one fluid exit, wherein said entrances andexit are on one surface of the FCC and said FCC comprises no protrudingfluid passage on said surface. In an embodiment, said surface is smoothwith a maximum elevation change of no greater than 1 mm, or no greaterthan 100 microns, or no greater than 10 microns.

In an embodiment, the FCC comprises dual functional seal that isimpermeable to non-ionic substances and electrically insulating. In anembodiment, said interconnect comprises no fluid dispersing element andsaid anode and cathode comprise fluid dispersing components. In anembodiment, said interconnect comprises no fluid dispersing element andsaid anode and cathode comprise fluid channels.

In an embodiment, the FCC is detachably fixed to a mating surface andnot soldered nor welded to said mating surface. In an embodiment, theFCC is bolted to or pressed to said mating surface. In an embodiment,said mating surface comprises matching fuel entrance, matching oxidantentrance, and at least one matching fluid exit.

Further disclosed herein is an assembly comprising a fuel cell cartridge(FCC) and a mating surface, wherein the FCC comprises an anode, acathode, an electrolyte, an interconnect, a fuel entrance on a fuel sideof the FCC, an oxidant entrance on an oxidant side of the FCC, at leastone fluid exit, wherein the fuel entrance has a width of W_(f), the fuelside of the FCC has a length of L_(f), the oxidant entrance has a widthof W_(O), the oxidant side of the FCC has a length of L_(O), whereinW_(f)/L_(f) is in the range of 0.1 to 1.0, or 0.1 to 0.9, or 0.2 to 0.9,or 0.5 to 0.9, or 0.5 to 1.0 and W_(O)/L_(O) is in the range of 0.1 to1.0, or 0.1 to 0.9, or 0.2 to 0.9, or 0.5 to 0.9, or 0.5 to 1.0, whereinthe FCC is detachably fixed to the mating surface.

In an embodiment, the FCC is not soldered nor welded to said matingsurface. In an embodiment, the FCC is bolted to or pressed to saidmating surface. In an embodiment, said mating surface comprises matchingfuel entrance, matching oxidant entrance, and at least one matchingfluid exit.

In an embodiment, said entrances and exit are on one surface of the FCCand said FCC comprises no protruding fluid passage on said surface. Inan embodiment, said surface is smooth with a maximum elevation change ofno greater than 1 mm, or no greater than 100 microns, or no greater than10 microns.

In an embodiment, said interconnect comprises no fluid dispersingelement and said anode and cathode comprise fluid dispersing components.In an embodiment, said interconnect comprises no fluid dispersingelement and said anode and cathode comprise fluid channels.

Discussed herein is a method comprising pressing or bolting together afuel cell cartridge (FCC) and a mating surface, said method excludingwelding or soldering together the FCC and the mating surface, whereinthe FCC comprises an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte, an interconnect,a fuel entrance on a fuel side of the FCC, an oxidant entrance on anoxidant side of the FCC, at least one fluid exit, wherein the fuelentrance has a width of W_(f), the fuel side of the FCC has a length ofL_(f), the oxidant entrance has a width of W_(O), the oxidant side ofthe FCC has a length of L_(O), wherein W_(f)/L_(f) is in the range of0.1 to 1.0, or 0.1 to 0.9, or 0.2 to 0.9, or 0.5 to 0.9, or 0.5 to 1.0and W_(O)/L_(O) is in the range of 0.1 to 1.0, or 0.1 to 0.9, or 0.2 to0.9, or 0.5 to 0.9, or 0.5 to 1.0, wherein the FCC and the matingsurface are detachable.

In an embodiment, said entrances and exit are on one surface of the FCCand said FCC comprises no protruding fluid passage on said surface. Inan embodiment, said surface is smooth with a maximum elevation change ofno greater than 1 mm, or no greater than 100 microns, or no greater than10 microns. In an embodiment, said interconnect comprises no fluiddispersing element and said anode and cathode comprise fluid dispersingcomponents. In an embodiment, said interconnect comprises no fluiddispersing element and said anode and cathode comprise fluid channels.

Herein disclosed is a fuel cell cartridge (FCC) comprising a fuel celland a fuel cell casing, wherein the fuel cell comprises an anode, acathode, and an electrolyte, wherein at least a portion of the fuel cellcasing is made of the same material as the electrolyte. In anembodiment, the electrolyte is in contact with the portion of the fuelcell casing made of the same material. In an embodiment, the electrolyteand the portion of the fuel cell casing are made of a dual functionalseal (DFS), wherein the DFS comprises 3YSZ (3 mol % Y2O₃ in ZrO₂) and8YSZ (8 mol % Y2O₃ in ZrO₂), wherein the mass ratio of 3YSZ/8YSZ is inthe range of from 100/0 to 0/100 or from 10/90 to 90/10 and wherein theDFS is impermeable to non-ionic substances and electrically insulating.In an embodiment, the mass ratio of 3YSZ/8YSZ is about 50/50 or 40/60 or60/40 or 30/70 or 70/30 or 20/80 or 80/20.

In an embodiment, said fuel cell casing comprises a fuel entrance andfuel passage for the anode, an oxidant entrance and oxidant passage forthe cathode, and at least one fluid exit. In an embodiment, saidentrances and exit are on one surface of the FCC and said FCC comprisesno protruding fluid passage on said surface. In an embodiment, the fuelcell casing is in contact with at least a portion of the anode.

In an embodiment, the FCC comprises a barrier layer between theelectrolyte and the cathode and between the fuel cell casing and thecathode. In an embodiment, the FCC comprises an interconnect, whereinthe interconnect comprises no fluid dispersing element and said anodeand cathode comprise fluid dispersing components. In an embodiment, theFCC comprises an interconnect, wherein the interconnect comprises nofluid dispersing element and said anode and cathode comprise fluidchannels.

In an embodiment, the FCC is detachably fixed to a mating surface andnot soldered nor welded to said mating surface. In an embodiment, saidmating surface comprises matching fuel entrance, matching oxidantentrance, and at least one matching fluid exit.

Also discussed herein is a dual functional seal (DFS) comprising 3YSZ (3mol % Y2O₃ in ZrO₂) and 8YSZ (8 mol % Y2O₃ in ZrO₂), wherein the massratio of 3YSZ/8YSZ is in the range of from 10/90 to 90/10 and whereinthe DFS is impermeable to non-ionic substances and electricallyinsulating. In an embodiment, the mass ratio of 3YSZ/8YSZ is about 50/50or 40/60 or 60/40 or 30/70 or 70/30 or 20/80 or 80/20. In an embodiment,the DFS is used as an electrolyte in a fuel cell or as a portion of afuel cell casing or both.

Further disclosed herein is a method comprising providing a dualfunctional seal (DFS) in a fuel cell system, wherein the DFS comprises3YSZ (3 mol % Y2O₃ in ZrO₂) and 8YSZ (8 mol % Y₂O₃ in ZrO₂), wherein themass ratio of 3YSZ/8YSZ is in the range of from 100/0 to 0/100 or from10/90 to 90/10 and wherein the DFS is impermeable to non-ionicsubstances and electrically insulating. In an embodiment, the mass ratioof 3YSZ/8YSZ is about 50/50 or 40/60 or 60/40 or 30/70 or 70/30 or 20/80or 80/20.

In an embodiment, the DFS is used as electrolyte or a portion of a fuelcell casing or both in the fuel cell system. In an embodiment, saidportion of a fuel cell casing is the entire fuel cell casing. In anembodiment, said portion of a fuel cell casing is a coating on the fuelcell casing. In an embodiment, the electrolyte and said portion of afuel cell casing are in contact.

Disclosed herein is a fuel cell system comprising an anode having sixsurfaces, a cathode having six surfaces, an electrolyte, and an anodesurround in contact with at least three surfaces of the anode, whereinthe electrolyte is part of the anode surround and said anode surround ismade of the same material as the electrolyte. In an embodiment, saidsame material is a dual functional seal (DFS) comprising 3YSZ (3 mol %Y2O₃ in ZrO₂) and 8YSZ (8 mol % Y2O₃ in ZrO₂), wherein the mass ratio of3YSZ/8YSZ is in the range of from 100/0 to 0/100 or from 10/90 to 90/10and wherein the DFS is impermeable to non-ionic substances andelectrically insulating. In an embodiment, the mass ratio of 3YSZ/8YSZis about 50/50 or 40/60 or 60/40 or 30/70 or 70/30 or 20/80 or 80/20.

In an embodiment, the anode surround is in contact with five surfaces ofthe anode. In an embodiment, the fuel cell system comprises a barrierlayer between the cathode and a cathode surround, wherein the barrierlayer is in contact with at least three surfaces of the cathode, whereinthe electrolyte is part of the cathode surround and said cathodesurround is made of the same material as the electrolyte.

In an embodiment, the fuel cell system comprises fuel passage andoxidant passage in the anode surround and the cathode surround. In anembodiment, the fuel cell system comprises an interconnect, wherein theinterconnect comprises no fluid dispersing element and said anode andcathode comprise fluid dispersing components. In an embodiment, the fuelcell system comprises an interconnect, wherein the interconnectcomprises no fluid dispersing element and said anode and cathodecomprise fluid channels.

Electrochemical (EC) Gas Producer

Referring to FIG. 10A and FIG. 10B, herein disclosed is a device (an ECgas producer) comprising a first electrode 1010, 1011, a secondelectrode 1020, 1021, and an electrolyte 1030, 1031 between theelectrodes, wherein the first electrode 1010, 1011 is configured toreceive a fuel and no oxygen 1040, wherein the second electrode 1020,1021 is configured to receive water or nothing 1050, wherein the deviceis configured to simultaneously produce hydrogen 1070 from the secondelectrode and syngas 1060 from the first electrode. In an embodiment,1040 represents methane and water or methane and carbon dioxide. In anembodiment, 1030 represents an oxide ion conducting membrane. In anembodiment, 1031 represents a proton conducting membrane, 1011 and 1021represent Ni-barium zirconate electrodes. In an embodiment, 1010 and1020 represent Ni—YSZ or NiO—YSZ electrodes, 1040 represents hydrocarbonand water or hydrocarbon and carbon dioxide, and 1050 represents wateror water and hydrogen. In an embodiment, 1010 represents Cu-CGOelectrode optionally with CuO or Cu₂O or combinations thereof, 1020represents Ni—YSZ or NiO—YSZ electrode, 1040 represents hydrocarbon withlittle to no water, with no carbon dioxide, and with no oxygen, and 1050represents water or water and hydrogen.

In this disclosure, no oxygen means there is no oxygen present at thefirst electrode or at least not enough oxygen that would interfere withthe reaction. Also, in this disclosure, water only means that theintended feedstock is water and does not exclude trace elements orinherent components in water. For example, water containing salts orions is considered to be within the scope of water only. Water only alsodoes not require 100% pure water but includes this embodiment. Inembodiments, the hydrogen produced from the second electrode is purehydrogen, which means that in the produced gas phase from the secondelectrode, hydrogen is the main component. In some cases, the hydrogencontent is no less than 99.5%. In some cases, the hydrogen content is noless than 99.9%. In some cases, the hydrogen produced from the secondelectrode is the same purity as that produced from electrolysis ofwater.

In an embodiment, said first electrode is configured to receive methaneand water or methane and carbon dioxide. In an embodiment, said fuelcomprises a hydrocarbon having a carbon number in the range of 1-12 or1-10 or 1-8. Most preferably, the fuel is methane or natural gas, whichis predominantly methane. In an embodiment, the device does not generateelectricity. In an embodiment, the device comprises a mixer configuredto receive at least a portion of the first electrode product and atleast a portion of the second electrode product. In an embodiment, saidmixer is configured to generate a gas stream in which the hydrogen tocarbon oxides ratio is no less than 2 or no less than 3 or between 2 and3.

In an embodiment, said first electrode or second electrode or bothcomprise a catalyst and a substrate, wherein the mass ratio between thecatalyst and the substrate is in no less than 1/100 or no less than 1/10or no less than 1/5, or no less than 1/3, or no less than 1/1. In anembodiment, the catalyst comprises nickel oxide, silver, cobalt, cesium,nickel, iron, manganese, nitrogen, tetra-nitrogen, molybdenum, copper,chromium, rhodium, ruthenium, palladium, osmium, iridium, platinum, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, the substrate comprisesgadolinium, CeO₂, ZrO₂, SiO₂, TiO₂, steel, cordierite(2MgO-2Al2O₃-5SiO₂), aluminum titanate (Al2TiO5), silicon carbide (SiC),all phases of aluminum oxide, yttria or scandia-stabilized zirconia(YSZ), gadolinia or samaria-doped ceria, or combinations thereof. In anembodiment, said first electrode or second electrode or both comprise apromoter. In an embodiment, said promoter comprises Mo, W, Ba, K, Mg,Fe, or combinations thereof.

In an embodiment, said electrodes and electrolyte form a repeat unit andsaid device comprises multiple repeat units separated by interconnects.In an embodiment, the interconnects comprise no fluid dispersingelement. In an embodiment, said first electrode or second electrode orboth comprise fluid channels or alternatively said first electrode orsecond electrode or both comprise fluid dispersing components.

Also discussed herein is a method comprising forming a first electrode,forming a second electrode, and forming an electrolyte between theelectrodes, wherein the electrodes and electrolyte are assembled as theyare formed, wherein the first electrode is configured to receive a fueland no oxygen, wherein the second electrode is configured to receivewater only or nothing, wherein the device is configured tosimultaneously produce hydrogen from the second electrode and syngasfrom the first electrode.

In an embodiment, said forming comprises material jetting, binderjetting, inkjet printing, aerosol jetting, or aerosol jet printing, vatphotopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directedenergy deposition, sheet lamination, ultrasonic inkjet printing, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, said electrodes and electrolyteform a repeat unit and said method comprises forming said multiplerepeat units and forming interconnects between the repeat units.

In an embodiment, the method comprises forming fluid channels or fluiddispersing components in the first electrode or the second electrode orboth. In an embodiment, the method comprises heating in situ. In anembodiment, said heating comprises electromagnetic radiation (EMR). Inan embodiment, EMR comprises UV light, near ultraviolet light, nearinfrared light, infrared light, visible light, laser, electron beam.

Further discussed herein is a method comprising providing a devicecomprising a first electrode, a second electrode, and an electrolytebetween the electrodes, introducing a fuel without oxygen to the firstelectrode, introducing water only or nothing to the second electrode togenerate hydrogen, extracting hydrogen from the second electrode, andextracting syngas from the first electrode. In an embodiment, the fuelcomprises methane and water or methane and carbon dioxide. In anembodiment, said fuel comprises a hydrocarbon having a carbon number inthe range of 1-12 or 1-10 or 1-8.

In an embodiment, the method comprises feeding at least a portion of theextracted syngas to a Fischer-Tropsch reactor. In an embodiment, themethod comprises feeding at least a portion of the extracted hydrogen tothe Fischer-Tropsch reactor. In an embodiment, said at least portion ofthe extracted syngas and said at least portion of the extracted hydrogenare adjusted such that the hydrogen to carbon oxides ratio is no lessthan 2 or no less than 3 or between 2 and 3.

In an embodiment, the fuel is directly introduced into the firstelectrode or water is directly introduced into the second electrode orboth. In an embodiment, said first electrode or second electrode or bothcomprise a catalyst and a substrate, wherein the mass ratio between thecatalyst and the substrate is in no less than 1/100 or no less than 1/10or no less than 1/5, or no less than 1/3, or no less than 1/1. In anembodiment, the catalyst comprises nickel oxide, silver, cobalt, cesium,nickel, iron, manganese, nitrogen, tetra-nitrogen, molybdenum, copper,chromium, rhodium, ruthenium, palladium, osmium, iridium, platinum, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, the substrate comprisesgadolinium, CeO₂, ZrO₂, SiO₂, TiO₂, steel, cordierite(2MgO-2Al2O₃-5SiO₂), aluminum titanate (Al2TiO5), silicon carbide (SiC),all phases of aluminum oxide, yttria or scandia-stabilized zirconia(YSZ), gadolinia or samaria-doped ceria, or combinations thereof.

In an embodiment, the method comprises applying a potential differencebetween the electrodes. In an embodiment, the method comprises using theextracted hydrogen in one of the following or combinations thereof:Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reaction; Dry reforming reactions; Sabatierreaction catalyzed by nickel; Bosch reaction; Reverse water gas shiftreaction; Electrochemical reaction to produce electricity; Production ofammonia and/or fertilizer; Electrochemical compressor for hydrogenstorage or fueling hydrogen vehicles; Hydrogenation reactions.

The gas producer is not a fuel cell and does not generate electricity,in various embodiments. Electricity may be applied to the gas producerat the anode and cathode in some cases. In other cases, electricity isnot needed.

Electrodes

Both the cathode and the anode are electrodes in the electrochemical gasproducer. Examples of anode and cathode material are discussed below. Inan operating device, the actual anode and cathode designation depends onwhere reduction and oxidation reactions take place. In certainembodiments, a material acts as an anode with a set of operatingconditions and/or feedstocks and the same material acts as a cathodewith a different set of operating conditions and/or feedstocks. As such,the listing of material under anode or cathode is not limiting.Furthermore, the listings of anode/cathode materials apply to the firstelectrode and second electrode as discussed above.

In an embodiment, the cathode comprises perovskites, such as LSC, LSCF,LSM. In an embodiment, the cathode comprises lanthanum, cobalt,strontium, manganite. In an embodiment, the cathode is porous. In anembodiment, the cathode comprises YSZ, Nitrogen, Nitrogen Boron dopedGraphene, La_(0.6)Sr_(0.4)CO_(0.2)Fe_(0.8)O₃, SrCo_(0.5)Sc_(0.5)O₃,BaFe_(0.75)Ta_(0.2)5O₃, BaFe_(0.875)Re_(0.125)O₃,Ba_(0.5)La_(0.125)Zn_(0.375)NiO₃,Ba_(0.75)Sr_(0.25)Fe_(0.875)Ga_(0.125)O₃, BaFe_(0.125)CO_(0.125),Zr_(0.75)O₃. In an embodiment, the cathode comprises LSCo, LCo, LSF,LSCoF. In an embodiment, the cathode comprises perovskites LaCoO₃,LaFeO₃, LaMnO₃, (La,Sr)MnO₃, LSM-GDC, LSCF-GDC, LSC-GDC. Cathodescontaining LSCF are suitable for intermediate-temperatureelectrochemical gas producer operation. In an embodiment, the cathodecomprises Cu-CGO, CuO-CGO, Cu₂O-CGO, or combinations thereof.

In an embodiment, the cathode comprises a material selected from thegroup consisting of lanthanum strontium manganite, lanthanum strontiumferrite, and lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite. In an embodiment, thecathode comprises lanthanum strontium manganite.

In an embodiment, the cathode comprises Ba(Ce_(0.4)Pr_(0.4)Y_(0.2))O₃;PrBaCuFeO₅; BaCe_(0.5)Bi_(0.5)O₃; SmBaCO₂O₅; BaCe_(0.5)Fe_(0.5)O₃;GdBaCO₂O₅; SmBa_(0.5)Sr_(0.5)CO₂O₅; PrBaCO₂O₅; or combinations thereof.In an embodiment, the cathode is a composite comprisingBa_(0.5)Sr_(0.5)Co_(0.5)Fe_(0.5)O₃ and BZCY (for example in a weightratio of 3:2), wherein BZCY is BaZr_(0.1)Ce_(0.2)Y_(0.2)O₃. In anembodiment, the cathode is a composite comprising Sm_(0.5) Sr_(0.5)CoO₃and Ce_(0.8)Sm_(0.2)O₂ (for example in a weight ratio of 6:4). In anembodiment, the cathode is a composite comprising Sm_(0.5)Sr_(0.5)CoO₃and BZCY (for example in a weight ratio of 7:3).

In an embodiment, the anode comprises Nickel-Oxide, Nickel-Oxide-YSZ,NiO-GDC, NiO-SDC, Aluminum doped Zinc Oxide, Molybdenum Oxide,Lanthanum, strontium, chromite, ceria, perovskites (such as, LSCF[La{1-x}Sr{x}Co{1-y}Fe{y}O₃] or LSM [La{1-x}Sr{x}MnO₃], where x isusually 0.15-0.2 and y is 0.7 to 0.8). In an embodiment, the anodecomprises SDC or BZCYYb coating or barrier layer to reduce coking andsulfur poisoning. In an embodiment, the anode is porous. In anembodiment, the anode comprises combination of electrolyte material andelectrochemically active material, combination of electrolyte materialand electrically conductive material.

In an embodiment, the anode comprises nickel and yttria stabilizedzirconia. In an embodiment, the anode is formed by reduction of amaterial comprising nickel oxide and yttria stabilized zirconia. In anembodiment, the anode comprises nickel and gadolinium stabilized ceria.In an embodiment, the anode is formed by reduction of a materialcomprising nickel oxide and gadolinium stabilized ceria.

In an embodiment, the anode comprises NiO. In an embodiment, the anodecomprises NiO—BZCY (1:1) and pore former. In an embodiment, the anodecomprises NiO—BZCY (6:4) and corn starch. In an embodiment, the anodecomprises NiO—BZCY (6:4) and starch/NiO—BZCY (6:4). In an embodiment,the anode comprises NiO—BZCY (6:4). In an embodiment, the anodecomprises NiO—BZCY. In an embodiment, the anode comprises NiO—BZCY (6:4)and starch/NiO—BZCY (1:1). In an embodiment, the anode comprises Cu-CGO,CuO-CGO, Cu₂O-CGO, or combinations thereof.

Electrochemical (EC) Compressor

Herein disclosed is an electrochemical compressor comprising an anode, acathode, an electrolyte between the anode and the cathode, a porousbipolar plate (PBP), an integrated support, a fluid distributor at afirst end of the compressor, and a fluid collector at a second end ofthe compressor, wherein said support is impermeable to non-ionicsubstances and electrically insulating. The PBP is electricallyconductive and permeable to gases (such as Hz, O₂).

As illustrated in FIG. 10C, the anode 1081, the electrolyte 1083, thecathode 1082, and the PBP 1084 form a repeat unit. In variousembodiments, an electrochemical compressor comprises a multiplicity ofsuch repeat units between the fluid distributor 1085 and the fluidcollector 1086.

In an embodiment, the electrochemical compressor is configured toprovide between the first end and the second end of the compressor afluid pressure differential no less than 4000 psi, or no less than 5000psi, or no less than 6000 psi, or no less than 7000 psi, or no less than8000 psi, or no less than 9000 psi, or no less than 10000 psi. In anembodiment, said support is part of the electrolyte, or the anode, orthe cathode, or the PBP, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, saidsupport has a lattice structure that is regular or irregular. In anembodiment, the anode or cathode or both comprise fluid channels oralternatively the anode or cathode or both comprise fluid dispersingcomponents.

Also discussed herein is a method of making an electrochemicalcompressor comprising depositing an anode, a cathode, an electrolytebetween the anode and the cathode, and a porous bipolar plate (PBP) toform said compressor. In an embodiment, the method comprises providing afluid distributor at a first end of the compressor and a fluid collectorat a second end of the compressor. In an embodiment, said depositingcomprises material jetting, binder jetting, inkjet printing, aerosoljetting, or aerosol jet printing, vat photopolymerization, powder bedfusion, material extrusion, directed energy deposition, sheetlamination, ultrasonic inkjet printing, or combinations thereof.

In an embodiment, the method comprises co-sintering the anode, thecathode, the electrolyte, and the PBP. In an embodiment, the methodcomprises heating in situ. In an embodiment, said heating compriseselectromagnetic radiation (EMR). In an embodiment, EMR comprises UVlight, near ultraviolet light, near infrared light, infrared light,visible light, laser, electron beam. In an embodiment, the methodcomprises depositing an integrated support, wherein said support isimpermeable to non-ionic substances and electrically insulating. In anembodiment, said support has a lattice structure that is regular orirregular. In an embodiment, said support is part of the electrolyte, orthe anode, or the cathode, or the PBP, or combinations thereof. In anembodiment, the method comprises forming fluid dispersing components orfluid channels in the anode or cathode or both.

Further discussed herein is a method of using an electrochemicalcompressor comprising providing said compressor having an anode, acathode, an electrolyte between the anode and the cathode, and a porousbipolar plate (PBP), an integrated support, a fluid distributor at afirst end of the compressor, and a fluid collector at a second end ofthe compressor, wherein said support is impermeable to non-ionicsubstances and electrically insulating.

In an embodiment, said electrochemical compressor provides between thefirst end and the second end of the compressor a fluid pressuredifferential no less than 4000 psi, or no less than 5000 psi, or no lessthan 6000 psi, or no less than 7000 psi, or no less than 8000 psi, or noless than 9000 psi, or no less than 10000 psi. In an embodiment, saidelectrochemical compressor increases the pressure of hydrogen or oxygenfrom the first end to the second end.

In an embodiment, the method comprises using the compressor for hydrogenstorage. In an embodiment, the method comprises using the compressor forfueling vehicles. In an embodiment, the method comprises using thecompressor in pressurized hydrogen refrigeration systems.

As an example, as illustrated in FIG. 10C, all the layers of anelectrochemical compressor are formed and assembled via printing. Thematerial for making the anode, the cathode, the electrolyte, the PBP,and the integrated support, respectively, is made into an ink formcomprising a solvent and particles (e.g., nanoparticles). The inkoptionally comprises a dispersant, a binder, a plasticizer, asurfactant, a co-solvent, or combinations thereof. For the anode and thecathode, NiO and YSZ particles are mixed with a solvent, wherein thesolvent is water (e.g., de-ionized water) or an alcohol (e.g., butanol)or a mixture of alcohols. Organic solvents other than alcohols may alsobe used. For the electrolyte and the support, YSZ particles were mixedwith a solvent, wherein the solvent is water (e.g., de-ionized water) oran alcohol (e.g., butanol) or a mixture of alcohols. Organic solventsother than alcohols may also be used. For the PBP, metallic particles(such as, silver nanoparticles) are dissolved in a solvent, wherein thesolvent may include water (e.g., de-ionized water), organic solvents(e.g. mono-, di-, or tri-ethylene glycols or higher ethylene glycols,propylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol or ethers of such glycols,thiodiglycol, glycerol and ethers and esters thereof, polyglycerol,mono-, di-, and tri-ethanolamine, propanolamine, N,N-dimethylformamide,dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylacetamide, N-methylpyrrolidone,1,3-dimethylimidazolidone, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, n-propanol,diacetone alcohol, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, propylene carbonate),and combinations thereof. For an oxygen compressor, the electronicallyconducting phase in both electrodes comprises LSCF(-CGO) or LSM(-YSZ).

Fischer Tropsch

The method and system of this disclosure are suitable for making acatalyst or a catalyst composite, such as a Fischer-Tropsch (FT)catalyst or catalyst composite. Herein disclosed is a Fischer-Tropsch(FT) catalyst composite comprising a catalyst and a substrate, whereinthe mass ratio between the catalyst and the substrate is in no less than1/100 or no less than 1/10 or no less than 1/5, or no less than 1/3, orno less than 1/1. In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises Fe, Co, Ni,or Ru. In an embodiment, the substrate comprises Al₂O₃, ZrO₂, SiO₂,TiO₂, CeO₂, modified Al₂O₃, modified ZrO₂, modified SiO₂, modified TiO₂,modified CeO₂, gadolinium, steel, cordierite (2MgO-2Al2O₃-5SiO₂),aluminum titanate (Al2TiO5), silicon carbide (SiC), all phases ofaluminum oxide, yttria or scandia-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), gadoliniaor samaria-doped ceria, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, thecatalyst composite comprises a promoter. In an embodiment, said promotercomprises noble metals, or metal cations, or combinations thereof. In anembodiment, said promoter comprises B, La, Zr, K, Cu, or combinationsthereof. In an embodiment, the catalyst composite comprises fluidchannels or alternatively fluid dispersing components.

The FT reactor/system of this disclosure is much smaller thantraditional FT reactors/systems (e.g., 3-100 times smaller or 100+ timessmaller for the same FT product generation rate). The high catalyst tosubstrate ratio is not achievable by traditional methods to make FTcatalysts. As such, in some embodiments, the FT reactor/system isminiaturized compared to traditional FT reactors/systems.

Also discussed herein is a method comprising depositing aFischer-Tropsch (FT) catalyst to a substrate to form a FT catalystcomposite, wherein said depositing comprises material jetting, binderjetting, inkjet printing, aerosol jetting, or aerosol jet printing, vatphotopolymerization, powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directedenergy deposition, sheet lamination, ultrasonic inkjet printing, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, the mass ratio between thecatalyst and the substrate is in no less than 1/100 or no less than 1/10or no less than 1/5, or no less than 1/3, or no less than 1/1. In anembodiment, the method comprises forming fluid channels or alternativelyfluid dispersing components in the catalyst composite.

Further discussed herein is a system comprising a Fischer-Tropsch (FT)reactor containing a FT catalyst composite comprising a catalyst and asubstrate, wherein the mass ratio between the catalyst and the substrateis in no less than 1/100 or no less than 1/10 or no less than 1/5, or noless than 1/3, or no less than 1/1. In an embodiment, the catalystcomprises Fe, Co, Ni, or Ru. In an embodiment, the substrate comprisesAl₂O₃, ZrO₂, SiO₂, TiO₂, CeO₂, modified Al₂O₃, modified ZrO₂, modifiedSiO₂, modified TiO₂, modified CeO₂, gadolinium, steel, cordierite(2MgO-2Al2O₃-5SiO₂), aluminum titanate (Al2TiO5), silicon carbide (SiC),all phases of aluminum oxide, yttria or scandia-stabilized zirconia(YSZ), gadolinia or samaria-doped ceria, or combinations thereof. In anembodiment, the catalyst composite comprises a promoter.

As an example, a FT catalyst composite is formed via printing. Thecatalyst and the substrate/support are made into an ink form comprisinga solvent and particles (e.g., nanoparticles). The ink optionallycomprises a dispersant, a binder, a plasticizer, a surfactant, aco-solvent, or combinations thereof. The ink may be any kind ofsuspension. The ink may be treated with a mixing process, such asultrasonication or high shear mixing. In some cases, an iron ink is inan aqueous environment. In some cases, an iron ink is in an organicenvironment. The iron ink may also include a promoter. Thesubstrate/support may be a suspension or ink of alumina, in an aqueousenvironment or an organic environment. The substrate ink may be treatedwith a mixing process, such as ultrasonication or high shear mixing. Insome cases, the substrate ink comprises a promoter. In some cases, thepromoter is added as its own ink, in an aqueous environment or anorganic environment. In some cases, the various inks are printedseparately and sequentially. In some cases, the various inks are printedseparately and simultaneously, for example, through different printheads. In some cases, the various inks are printed in combination as amixture.

As an example, an exhaust from the fuel cell comprises hydrogen, carbondioxide, water, and optionally carbon monoxide. The exhaust is passedover a FT catalyst (e.g., an iron catalyst) to produce synthetic fuelsor lubricants. The FT iron catalyst has the property to promote watergas shift reaction or reverse water gas shift reaction. The FT reactionstake place at a temperature in the range of 150-350° C. and a pressurein the range of one to several tens of atmospheres (e.g., 15 atm or 10atm or 5 atm or 1 atm). Additional hydrogen may be added to the exhauststream to reach a hydrogen to carbon oxides ratio (carbon dioxide andcarbon monoxide) of no less than 2 or no less than 3 or between 2 and 3.

Matching SRTs

In this disclosure, SRT refers to a component of the strain rate tensor.Matching SRTs is contemplated in both heating and cooling processes. Ina fuel cell or an EC gas producer or an EC compressor or a FT catalyst,multiple materials or compositions exist. These different materials orcompositions often have different thermal expansion coefficients. Assuch, the heating or cooling process often causes strain or even cracksin the material. We have unexpectedly discovered a treating process(heating or cooling) to match the SRTs of differentmaterials/compositions to reduce, minimize, or even eliminateundesirable effects.

Herein discussed is a method of making a fuel cell, wherein the fuelcell comprises a first composition and a second composition, the methodcomprising heating the first and second compositions, wherein the firstcomposition has a first SRT and the second composition has a second SRT,such that the difference between the first SRT and the second SRT is nogreater than 75% of the first SRT. As an illustration, FIG. 7 shows theSRTs of a first composition and a second composition as a function oftemperature.

In an embodiment, wherein the SRTs are measured in mm/min. In anembodiment, the difference between the first SRT and the second SRT isno greater than 50% or 30% or 20% of the first SRT. In an embodiment,heating is achieved via at least one of the following: conduction,convection, radiation. In an embodiment, heating compriseselectromagnetic radiation (EMR). In an embodiment, EMR comprises UVlight, near ultraviolet light, near infrared light, infrared light,visible light, laser, electron beam.

In an embodiment, the first composition and the second composition areheated at the same time. In an embodiment, the first composition and thesecond composition are heated at different times. In an embodiment, thefirst composition is heated for a first period of time, the secondcomposition is heated for a second period of time, wherein at least aportion of the first period of time overlaps with the second period oftime.

In an embodiment, heating takes places more than once for the firstcomposition, or for the second composition, or for both. In anembodiment, the first composition and the second composition are heatedat different temperatures. In an embodiment, the first composition andthe second composition are heated using different means. In anembodiment, the first composition and the second composition are heatedfor different periods of time. In an embodiment, heating the firstcomposition causes at least partial heating of the second composition,for example, via conduction. In an embodiment, heating causesdensification of the first composition, or the second composition, orboth.

In an embodiment, the first composition is heated to achieve partialdensification resulting in a modified first SRT; and then the first andsecond compositions are heated such that the difference between themodified first SRT and the second SRT is no greater than 75% of thefirst modified SRT. In an embodiment, the first composition is heated toachieve partial densification resulting in a modified first SRT, thesecond composition is heated to achieve partial densification resultingin a modified second SRT; and then the first and second compositions areheated such that the difference between the modified first SRT and thesecond modified SRT is no greater than 75% of the first modified SRT.

In an embodiment, the fuel cell comprises a third composition having athird SRT. In an embodiment, the third composition is heated such thatthe difference between the first SRT and the third SRT is no greaterthan 75% of the first SRT. In an embodiment, the third composition isheated to achieve partial densification resulting in a modified thirdSRT; and then the first and second and third compositions are heatedsuch that the difference between the first SRT and the modified thirdSRT is no greater than 75% of the first SRT. In an embodiment, the firstand second and third compositions are heated to achieve partialdensification resulting in a modified first SRT, a modified second SRT,and a modified third SRT; and then the first and second and thirdcompositions are heated such that the difference between the modifiedfirst SRT and the modified second SRT is no greater than 75% of themodified first SRT and the difference between the modified first SRT andthe modified third SRT is no greater than 75% of the modified first SRT.

In various embodiments, the method produces a crack free electrolyte inthe fuel cell. In various embodiments, heating is performed in situ. Invarious embodiments, heating causes sintering or co-sintering or both.In various embodiments, heating takes place for no greater than 30minutes, or no greater than 30 seconds, or no greater than 30milliseconds.

Referring to FIG. 8 , in an embodiment, a process flow diagram is shownfor forming and heating at least a portion of a fuel cell. 810represents forming composition 1. 820 represents heating composition 1at temperature T1 for time t1. 830 represents forming composition 2. 840represents heating composition 1 and composition 2 simultaneously attemperature T2 for time t2, wherein at T2, the difference between SRT ofcomposition 1 and SRT of composition 2 is no greater than 75% of SRT ofcomposition 1. Alternatively, 840 represents heating composition 1 andcomposition 2 simultaneously at temperature T2 and T2′ (for example,using different heating mechanisms) for time t2, wherein at T2 and T2′,the difference between SRT of composition 1 and SRT of composition 2 isno greater than 75% of SRT of composition 1.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are provided as part of the disclosure of variousembodiments of the present invention. As such, none of the informationprovided below is to be taken as limiting the scope of the invention.

Example 1. Making a Fuel Cell Stack

Example 1 is illustrative of the preferred method of making a fuel cellstack. The method uses an AMM model no. 0012323 from Ceradrop and an EMRmodel no. 092309423 from Xenon Corp. An interconnect substrate is putdown to start the print.

As a first step, an anode layer is made by the AMM. This layer isdeposited by the AMM as a slurry A, having the composition as shown inthe table below. This layer is allowed to dry by applying heat via aninfrared lamp. This anode layer is sintered by hitting it with anelectromagnetic pulse from a xenon flash tube for 1 second.

An electrolyte layer is formed on top of the anode layer by the AMMdepositing a slurry B, having the composition shown in the table below.This layer is allowed to dry by applying heat via an infrared lamp. Thiselectrolyte layer is sintered by hitting it with an electromagneticpulse from a xenon flash tube for 60 seconds.

Next a cathode layer is formed on top of the electrolyte layer by theAMM depositing a slurry C, having the composition shown in the tablebelow. This layer is allowed to dry by applying heat via an infraredlamp. This cathode layer is sintered by hitting it with anelectromagnetic pulse from a xenon flash tube for ½ second.

An interconnect layer is formed on top of the cathode layer by the AMMdepositing a slurry D, having the composition shown in the table below.This layer is allowed to dry by applying heat via an infrared lamp. Thisinterconnect layer is sintered by hitting it with an electromagneticpulse from a xenon flash tube for 30 seconds.

These steps are then repeated 60 times, with the anode layers beingformed on top of the interconnects. The result is a fuel cell stack with61 fuel cells.

Composition of Slurries Slurry Solvents Particles A 100% isopropylalcohol 10 wt % NiO-8YSZ B 100% isopropyl alcohol 10 wt % 8YSZ C 100%isopropyl alcohol 10 wt % LSCF D 100% isopropyl alcohol 10 wt %lanthanum chromite

Example 2. LSCF in Ethanol

Mix 200 ml of ethanol with 30 grams of LSCF powder in a beaker.Centrifuge the mixture and obtain an upper dispersion and a lowerdispersion. Extract and deposit the upper dispersion using a 3D printeron a substrate and form a LSCF layer. Use a xenon lamp (10 kW) toirradiate the LSCF layer at a voltage of 400V and a burst frequency of10 Hz for a total exposure duration of 1,000 ms.

Example 3. CGO in Ethanol

Mix 200 ml of ethanol with 30 grams of CGO powder in a beaker.Centrifuge the mixture and obtain an upper dispersion and a lowerdispersion. Extract and deposit the upper dispersion using a 3D printeron a substrate and form a CGO layer. Use a xenon lamp (10 kW) toirradiate the CGO layer at a voltage of 400V and a burst frequency of 10Hz for a total exposure duration of 8,000 ms.

Example 4. CGO in Water

Mix 200 ml of deionized water with 30 grams of CGO powder in a beaker.Centrifuge the mixture and obtain an upper dispersion and a lowerdispersion. Extract and deposit the upper dispersion using a 3D printeron a substrate and form a CGO layer. Use a xenon lamp (10 kW) toirradiate the CGO layer at a voltage of 400V and a burst frequency of 10Hz for a total exposure duration of 8,000 ms.

Example 5. NiO in Water

Mix 200 ml of deionized water with 30 grams of NiO powder in a beaker.Centrifuge the mixture and obtain an upper dispersion and a lowerdispersion. Extract and deposit the upper dispersion using a 3D printeron a substrate and form a NiO layer. Use a xenon lamp (10 kW) toirradiate the NiO layer at a voltage of 400V and a burst frequency of 10Hz for a total exposure duration of 15,000 ms.

Example 6. Particle Size Control

The slurries and dispersions as discussed in Examples 1-5 containparticles having a particle size distribution. The table below showsparticle size distributions that are according to the embodiments ofthis disclosure.

Particles Particle Size Distribution Case 1 NiO-8YSZ D10 is about 10 nm;8YSZ D90 is about 100 nm. Case 2 LSCF D50 is about 25 nm. Case 3 CGO D50is about 10 nm. Case 4 NiO D50 is about 5 nm. lanthanum chromite

Example 7. Sintering Results

Referring to FIG. 12 , an electrolyte 1201 (YSZ) is printed and sinteredon an electrode 1202 (NiO—YSZ). The scanning electron microscopy imageshows the side view of the sintered structures, which demonstratesgas-tight contact between the electrolyte and the electrode, fulldensification of the electrolyte, and sintered and porous electrodemicrostructures.

Example 8. Fuel Cell Stack Configurations

A 48-Volt fuel cell stack (planar non-SIS type SOFC) has 69 cells withabout 1000 Watts of power output. The fuel cell stack has a dimension ofabout 4 cm×4 cm in length and width and about 7 cm in height. A 48-Voltfuel cell stack (planar non-SIS type SOFC) has 69 cells with about 5000Watts of power output. The fuel cell in this stack has a dimension ofabout 8.5 cm×8.5 cm in length and width and about 7 cm in height.

Example 9. Electrochemical Reactor Configurations

Fuel cell stacks may be used as solid oxide flow batteries having thesame configurations and dimensions. A 48-Volt fuel cell stack (planarnon-SIS type SOFC) has 69 cells with about 1000 Watts of power output.The fuel cell stack has a dimension of about 4 cm×4 cm in length andwidth. Each cell in the stack has an anode with a thickness of about 50microns, a cathode with a thickness of about 50 microns, an electrolytebetween the anode and the cathode with a thickness of about 10 microns,and an interconnect with a thickness of about 50 microns. As such, thefuel cell stack has a height of about 1.1 cm.

Example 10. Fuel Cell Stack Configurations

A 48-Volt fuel cell stack (planar non-SIS type SOFC) has 69 cells withabout 5000 Watts of power output. The fuel cell in this stack has adimension of about 8.5 cm×8.5 cm in length and width. Each cell in thestack has an anode with a thickness of about 20 microns, a cathode witha thickness of about 20 microns, an electrolyte between the anode andthe cathode with a thickness of about 1 micron, and an interconnect witha thickness of about 1 micron. As such, the fuel cell stack has a heightof about 0.29 cm.

Example 11. Fuel Cell Stack Configurations

A 48-Volt fuel cell stack (planar non-SIS type SOFC) has 69 cells withabout 5000 Watts of power output. The fuel cell in this stack has adimension of about 8.5 cm×8.5 cm in length and width. Each cell in thestack has an anode with a thickness of about 25 microns, a cathode witha thickness of about 25 microns, an electrolyte between the anode andthe cathode with a thickness of about 5 microns, and an interconnectwith a thickness of about 5 microns. As such, the fuel cell stack has aheight of about 0.41 cm. Such fuel cell stacks may be used as solidoxide flow batteries having the same configurations and dimensions.

It is to be understood that this disclosure describes exemplaryembodiments for implementing different features, structures, orfunctions of the invention. Exemplary embodiments of components,arrangements, and configurations are described to simplify the presentdisclosure; however, these exemplary embodiments are provided merely asexamples and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Theembodiments as presented herein may be combined unless otherwisespecified. Such combinations do not depart from the scope of thedisclosure.

Additionally, certain terms are used throughout the description andclaims to refer to particular components or steps. As one skilled in theart appreciates, various entities may refer to the same component orprocess step by different names, and as such, the naming convention forthe elements described herein is not intended to limit the scope of theinvention. Further, the terms and naming convention used herein are notintended to distinguish between components, features, and/or steps thatdiffer in name but not in function.

While the disclosure is susceptible to various modifications andalternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way ofexample in the drawings and description. It should be understood,however, that the drawings and detailed description are not intended tolimit the disclosure to the particular form disclosed, but on thecontrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents andalternatives falling within the spirit and scope of this disclosure.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of making an electrochemical reactor comprising a) depositing a composition on a substrate to form a slice, wherein the composition consists of particles suspended in a liquid; b) drying the slice using a non-contact dryer; and c) sintering the particles having particle boundaries in dry particulate form using a xenon lamp, wherein the particles are selected from the group consisting of inorganic ceramics, metal oxides, and mixtures of inorganic ceramics and metal oxides, wherein the particles are not semiconductors; wherein the electrochemical reactor comprises an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte between the anode and the cathode.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrochemical reactor comprises at least one unit, wherein the unit comprises the anode, the cathode, the electrolyte and an interconnect, and wherein the unit has a thickness of no greater than 1 mm.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the anode is no greater than 50 microns in thickness, the cathode is no greater than 50 microns in thickness, and the electrolyte is no greater than 10 microns in thickness.
 4. The method of claim 1 comprising utilizing conductive heating in step b) or step c) or both.
 5. The method of claim 1 further comprising repeating steps a)-c) to produce the electrochemical reactor slice by slice.
 6. The method of claim 1 further comprising d) measuring the slice temperature T within time t after the last exposure of the xenon lamp without contacting the slice, wherein t is no greater than 5 seconds.
 7. The method of claim 6 further comprising e) comparing T with T_(sinter), wherein T_(sinter) is no less than 45% of the melting point of the composition if the composition is non-metallic; or wherein T_(sinter) is no less than 60% of the melting point of the composition if the composition is metallic, or wherein T_(sinter) is previously determined by correlating the measured temperature with microstructure images of the slice, scratch test of the slice, electrochemical performance test of the slice, dilatometry measurements of the slice, conductivity measurements of the slice, or combinations thereof.
 8. The method of claim 7 further comprising sintering the slice using the xenon lamp or conduction or both in a second stage if T is less than 90% of T_(sinter).
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the porosity of the material after the second stage sintering is less than that after the first stage sintering, or wherein the material has greater densification after the second stage sintering than after the first stage sintering.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the particles are selected from the group consisting of: CuO, Cu₂O, Ag₂O, Au₂O, Au₂O₃, Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), 8YSZ (8 mol % YSZ powder), Yttirum, Zirconium, gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC or CGO), Samaria-doped ceria (SDC), Scandia-stabilized zirconia (SSZ), Lanthanum strontium manganite (LSM), Lanthanum Strontium Cobalt Ferrite (LSCF), Lanthanum Strontium Cobaltite (LSC), Lanthanum Strontium Gallium Magnesium Oxide (LSGM), NiO, NiO—YSZ, lanthanum chromite, doped lanthanum chromite, and a combination thereof.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the particles have a particle size distribution, wherein the particle size distribution has at least one of the following characteristics: (a) said size distribution comprises D10 and D90, wherein 10% of the particles have a diameter no greater than D10 and 90% of the particles have a diameter no greater than D90, wherein D90/D10 is in the range of from 1.5 to 100; or (b) said size distribution is bimodal such that the average particle size in the first mode is at least 5 times the average particle size in the second mode; or (c) said size distribution comprises D50, wherein 50% of the particles have a diameter no greater than D50, wherein D50 is no greater than 100 nm.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein drying takes place for a period in the range of no greater than 1 minute.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein said non-contact dryer comprises infrared heater, hot air blower, ultraviolet light source, or combinations thereof.
 14. The method of claim 1 further comprising f) measuring a property of the slice; g) comparing the measured property with preset criteria; h) depositing the same composition on the slice to form another slice if the measured property does not meet the preset criteria or depositing another composition on the slice to form another slice if the measured property meets the preset criteria.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein said another composition is the same as the composition.
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein said measuring a property of the slice comprises the use of photography, microscopy, radiography, ellipsometry, spectroscopy, structured-light 3D scanning, 3D laser scanning, multi-spectral imaging, infrared imaging, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, or combinations thereof.
 17. The method of claim 14, wherein said measuring a property of the slice comprises measuring transmittance, reflectance, absorbance, or combinations thereof of an electromagnetic radiation that interacts with the slice during measuring.
 18. The method of claim 14, wherein the preset criteria comprise the slice having a continuous surface extending as a whole in the lateral direction.
 19. The method of claim 14, wherein said measuring takes place within 30 minutes or within 1 minute after sintering; or wherein said comparing takes place within 30 minutes or within 1 minute after measuring.
 20. The method of claim 1, wherein drying takes place from 3 s to 10 s. 